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Ọrụ ugbo siri ike

  Ọrụ ugbo siri ike, nke a makwaara dị ka ọrụ ugbo kpụ ọkụ n'ọnụ (na-emegide ọrụ ugbo buru ibu), omenala, ma ọ bụ ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, bụ ụdị ọrụ ugbo, ma nke osisi na nke anụmanụ, nwere ọkwa dị elu nke ntinye na mmepụta kwa nkeji nke ala ubi. A na-eji ya dị obere, iji ntinye dị elu dịka isi obodo, ọrụ, agrochemicals na mmiri, yana ihe ọkụkụ dị elu n'otu mpaghara ala.[1]

Ịkọ ugbo ọka wit na Lund, Sweden

Ọrụ ugbo siri ike, nke a makwaara dị ka ọrụ ugbo kpụ ọkụ n'ọnụ (na-emegide ọrụ ugbo buru ibu), omenala, ma ọ bụ ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, bụ ụdị ọrụ ugbo, ma nke osisi na nke anụmanụ, nwere ọkwa dị elu nke ntinye na mmepụta kwa nkeji nke ala ubi. A na-eji ya dị obere, iji ntinye dị elu dịka isi obodo, ọrụ, agrochemicals na mmiri, yana ihe ọkụkụ dị elu n'otu mpaghara ala.

Ụfọdụ ugbo siri ike nwere ike iji usoro na-adịgide adịgide, ọ bụ ezie na nke a na-achọkarị ntinye ọrụ dị elu ma ọ bụ mkpụrụ dị ala.[2] Ịbawanye mmepụta ihe n'ọrụ ugbo, ọkachasị na obere ụlọ, bụ ụzọ dị mkpa iji belata oke ala achọrọ maka ọrụ ugbo na Mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi nke usoro ndị dị ka mgbukpọ ọhịa kpatara.[3]

Ịzụ anụmanụ siri ike na-agụnye ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke anụmanụ a zụlitere na obere ala, dịka ọmụmaatụ site na ịta ahịhịa, ma ọ bụ mgbe ụfọdụ dị ka ọrụ inye anụmanụ nri.[4] Ụzọ ndị a na-eme ka ihe oriri na eriri na mpaghara ala ọ bụla dịkwuo elu ma e jiri ya tụnyere nke anụmanụ buru ibu; a na-eweta nri dị nro nye anụmanụ ndị a na'adịghị akpali akpali, ma ọ bụ, site na ịta nri na-agbanwe agbanwe, a na-akpali anụmanụ ugboro ugboro gaa n'ọhịa ọhụrụ. [5][4]  

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Ihe oyiyi nke traktọ na-akọ ubi alfalfa na mmalite narị afọ nke 20

Mmepe ọrụ ugbo na Britain n'agbata narị afọ nke 16 na etiti narị afọ nke 19 hụrụ mmụba dị ukwuu na mmepụta ihe ọkụkụ na mmepụta ụgbụ. Nke a n'aka nke a so mee ka ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị mmadụ na-enwetụbeghị ụdị ya, na-ewepụta pasentị dị ukwuu nke ndị ọrụ, ma si otú ahụ nyere aka mee ka mgbanwe mgbanwe nke ụlọ ọrụ dị. Ndị ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme kwuru na mgbachi, mechanization, ntụgharị ubi anọ, na ịmụ nwa dị ka ihe ọhụrụ kachasị mkpa.

Ọrụ ugbo malitere na mgbanwe ụlọ ọrụ. Ka ọ na-erule mmalite narị afọ nke iri na itoolu, usoro ọrụ ugbo, ngwá ọrụ, mkpụrụ osisi, na cultivars emeela ka ọ dịkwuo mma nke na ihe ubi ọ bụla na-amị ọtụtụ ugboro karịa ka a hụrụ na Middle Ages.[6]   [<span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2019)">page<span typeof="mw:Entity"> </span>needed</span>]

Nzọụkwụ mbụ gụnyere usoro na-aga n'ihu nke imepụta ígwè. Ngwá ọrụ ndị na-adọta ịnyịnya dị ka onye na-ere ihe ubi McCormick gbanwere owuwe ihe ubi, ebe ihe ndị e mepụtara dị ka ihe owuwu na-ebelata ọnụahịa nhazi. N'otu oge a, ndị ọrụ ugbo malitere iji ihe na-egbuke egbuke na traktọ na-eji uzuoku eme ihe. [7][8][9] N'afọ 1892, e mepụtara traktọ mbụ na-eji gasoline eme ihe nke ọma, na 1923, traktọ International Harvester Farmall ghọrọ traktọ mbụ nwere ebumnuche niile, na-egosi ebe mgbanwe n'iji ígwè dochie anụmanụ. E mepụtara ihe owuwu igwe (combines), ndị ọrụ ugbo, ndị na-etinye ihe, na ngwá ọrụ ndị ọzọ, na-agbanwewanye ọrụ ugbo.[10] Ihe ndị a mepụtara mere ka ihe na-amịkwu ma nye ndị ọrụ ugbo ohere ijikwa nnukwu ugbo.[11]

Nchọpụta nke nitrogen, phosphorus, na potassium (NPK) dị ka ihe ndị dị mkpa na-eto eto na-eduga n'ịmepụta fatịlaịza sịntetik, na-abawanye ụba nke ihe ọkụkụ. N'afọ 1909, e gosipụtara ụzọ Haber-Bosch iji mepụta ammonium nitrate nke mbụ. Fatịlaịza NPK kpalitere nchegbu mbụ banyere ọrụ ugbo nke ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, n'ihi nchegbu na ha nwere mmetụta dị iche iche dị ka mkpirisi ala, nbibi ala, na mbelata na ọmụmụ ala n'ozuzu ya, yana nchegbu ahụike gbasara kemịkalụ na-egbu egbu na-abanye na nri.

Nchọpụta nke vitamin na ọrụ ha na nri na-edozi ahụ, n'ime afọ iri abụọ mbụ nke narị afọ nke 20, dugara na mgbakwunye vitamin, nke na 1920s nyere ohere ịzụlite ụfọdụ anụ ụlọ n'ime ụlọ, na-ebelata ikpughe ha na ihe ndị na-adịghị mma.[12]

Mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị, ojiji nke fatịlaịza emepụtara mụbara ngwa ngwa.[13]

Nchọpụta nke ọgwụ nje na ọgwụ mgbochi mere ka ọ dịrị ndị mmadụ mfe ịzụlite anụ ụlọ site n'ibelata ọrịa.[14][15] Ọganihu na nhazi na friji yana teknụzụ nhazi mere ka nkesa dị anya nwee ike. Njikọ nchịkwa ahụhụ bụ usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ iji belata ojiji nke ọgwụ ahụhụ ruo n'ókè dị mma.[16][17]

Enwere nchegbu banyere nkwado nke ọrụ ugbo, na mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi nke fatịlaịza na ọgwụ ahụhụ, nke mere ka mmegharị nke organic ma wuo ahịa maka ọrụ ugbo siri ike na-adịgide adịgide, yana ego maka mmepe nke teknụzụ kwesịrị ekwesị.

Usoro na teknụzụ

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Anụ ụlọ

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Ehi nọ n'ebe ịta ahịhịa na-eri ahịhịhịa site na mgbidi waya

Ịkwalite ebe ịta nri bụ imelite ala ịta ahịhịa na ahịhịa iji mụbaa ikike mmepụta nri nke usoro anụ ụlọ. A na-ejikarị eme ihe iji weghachi mmebi nke ịta ahịhịa, usoro e ji enwe ụkọ nri na mbelata ikike ibu anụmanụ nke na-esite na ịta nri nke ukwuu, njikwa nri adịghị mma, na enweghị nchekwa ala.[21]. Nke a na-emebi emebi na-eduga na ala ịta ahịhịa na-adịghị mma nke nwere mbelata ọmụmụ na mmiri dị na ụbara nke mbuze, mkpirisi, na acidification.[22]. Ebe ịta nri e mebiri emebi na-arụpụta obere ihe yana usoro carbon dị elu ma e jiri ya tụnyere ebe ịta nri siri ike.[18][19][20][21][22]

Omume nchịkwa nke na-eme ka ahụike ala dị mma ma si otú a mepụta ahịhịa gụnyere ịgba mmiri, scarification ala, na itinye lime, fatịlaịza, na ọgwụ ahụhụ. Dabere na ebumnuche mmepụta ihe nke usoro ọrụ ugbo a na-elekwasị anya, enwere ike ịme ọrụ mweghachi ndị ọzọ iji dochie ahịhịa na-mwakpo na nke na-adịghị emepụta ihe na ụdị ahịhịhịa ndị dabara adaba na ala na ọnọdụ ihu igwe nke mpaghara ahụ.[23] Usoro ahịhịa ndị a siri ike na-enye ohere ọnụego dị elu na ibu anụmanụ ngwa ngwa na oge dị ala maka igbu egbu, na-akpata usoro anụ ụlọ na-arụpụta ihe, nke na-arụ ọrụ carbon.[20][21][22]

Usoro ọzọ iji melite ihe ọkụkụ mgbe ị na-echekwa nguzozi carbon bụ iji usoro ihe ọkụkụ-ụmụ (ICL) na usoro ihe ọkpọ-ụmụ anụ ọhịa (ICLF), nke jikọtara ọtụtụ usoro gburugburu ebe obibi n'ime otu usoro ọrụ ugbo kachasị mma.[24] N'ụzọ ziri ezi, usoro mmepụta dị otú ahụ nwere ike ịmepụta njikọ aka nke nwere ike inye uru maka ebe ịta nri site na iji osisi eme ihe nke ọma, ọnụego nri na abụba dị mma, mmụba nke ala na ogo, ịgba ọsọ nri siri ike, njikwa nje, na ụdị dị iche iche.[23][24] Iwebata ụfọdụ ihe ọkụkụ n'ebe ịta nri nwere ike ịbawanye ụyọkọ carbon na nitrogen na ala, ebe ike ịgbari ha na-enyere ụmụ anụmanụ aka ime ka ha sie ike ma belata ikuku methane site na fermentation enteric.[23][20] Usoro ICLF na-amịpụta mmepụta anụ ehi ruo okpukpu iri karịa nke ebe ịta nri mebiri emebi; mmepụta ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ site na ọka, sorghum, na owuwe ihe ubi soybean; na mbelata nke ukwuu nke gas na-ekpo ọkụ n'ihi nchedo carbon nke ọhịa.[25]

Na mmemme iri na abụọ nke Twelve Aprils maka mmepụta mmiri ara ehi, nke USDA-SARE mepụtara, a na-akụ ihe ọkụkụ maka ìgwè ehi n'ime ahịhịa na-adịgide adịgide.[26]

Ịzụ anụ na-agbagharị agbagharị

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Ịzụ ehi na atụrụ na-agbanwe agbanwe na Missouri na ịta ahịhịa nke e kewara n'ime paddocks, nke ọ bụla na-ata ahịhịrị n'otu n'otu maka obere oge wee zuru ike

Ịta nri ntụgharị bụ ụdị nri dị iche iche nke a na-ebuga ìgwè ehi ma ọ bụ ìgwè anụ ụlọ mgbe nile na n'usoro n'usoro na-aga n'ebe a na-ata nri ọhụrụ, nke a na-akpọ paddocks (mgbe ụfọdụ a na-akpọ paddocks) iji bulie ogo na ọnụọgụ nri nri. Enwere ike iji ya na ehi, atụrụ, ewu, ezi, ọkụkọ, turkey, ọbọgwụ na anụmanụ ndị ọzọ. Ụmụ ehi na-ata otu akụkụ nke ahịhịa, ma ọ bụ padock, ebe ha na-ekwe ka ndị ọzọ gbakee. Ala izu ike na-enye ohere ka ahịhịa na-eme ka nchekwa ike dị ọhụrụ, wughachi sistemu ịgba égbè, ma mee ka usoro mgbọrọgwụ mikwuo emie, na-ebute mmepụta biomass kachasị ogologo oge. [4][27][28] Sistemu ebe ịta nri naanị nwere ike ikwe ka ndị na-azụ anụ zute ike ha chọrọ, mana ịhịa aka n'ahụ na-adị irè karịsịa n'ihi na ndị na-azụ anụ na-eme nke ọma n'osisi ndị na-eto eto. A na-ahapụkwa parasaịt ka ọ nwụọ, na-ebelata ma ọ bụ na-ewepụ mkpa maka de-wormers. Site na mmụba nke sistemụ ntụgharị, anụmanụ nwere ike ịchọ nri mgbakwunye obere karịa ka usoro ịta nri na-aga n'ihu. Ya mere, ndị ọrụ ugbo nwere ike ịbawanye ọnụ ahịa ngwaahịa ngwaahịa.[5][29]

Ọrụ inye anụmanụ nri

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Ụlọ ọkụkọ na-ere ahịa na-ebuli mgbọ ọkụkọ maka anụ

Ịkpa anụ ụlọ siri ike ma ọ bụ "ọrụ ugbo ụlọ ọrụ", bụ usoro nke ịzụlite anụ ụlọ n'ụlọ mkpọrọ dị elu.[30][31][32] "Ọrụ inye anụmanụ nri" (CAFO), ma ọ bụ "ọrụ anụ ụlọ siri ike", nwere ike ijide ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu (ụfọdụ ruo ọtụtụ narị puku) nke ehi, ezì, turkey, ma ọ bụ ọkụkọ, mgbe mgbe n'ime ụlọ. Isi ihe dị n'ugbo ndị dị otú ahụ bụ nchịkọta anụ ụlọ n'otu oghere. Ebumnuche bụ ịnye mmepụta kachasị elu na ọnụahịa kachasị ala na ọkwa kachasị elu nke nchekwa nri.[33] A na-ejikarị okwu ahụ eme ihe n'ụzọ mkparị.[34] CAFOs amụbaala nke ukwuu mmepụta nri site na anụ ụlọ n'ụwa niile, ma n'ihe gbasara nri niile a na-emepụta na arụmọrụ.

A na-ewegara ụmụ anụmanụ nri na mmiri, a na-ejikarị ọgwụ mgbochi, ihe mgbakwunye vitamin, na hormone na-eto eto eme ihe. A naghị eji homonụ uto eme ihe na ọkụkọ ma ọ bụ anụmanụ ọ bụla na European Union. Omume ndị a na-achọghị nke ọma na-emetụtakarị nrụgide nke njide dugara n'ịchọ ụdị dị nro (dịka, na omume okike na-achịkwa), ihe mgbochi anụ ahụ iji kwụsị mmekọrịta, dị ka ụlọ ọkụkọ ọ bụla, ma ọ bụ mgbanwe anụ ahụ dị ka mwepụ nke ọkụkọ iji belata mmerụ ahụ nke ọgụ.[35][36]

Nkọwa CAFO sitere na 1972 U.S. Federal Clean Water Act, nke e tiri iji chebe ma weghachite ọdọ mmiri na osimiri ka ha bụrụ "ndị nwere ike igwu mmiri". Ụlọ ọrụ na-ahụ maka nchekwa gburugburu ebe obibi na United States chọpụtara ụfọdụ ọrụ nri anụmanụ, yana ọtụtụ ụdị ụlọ ọrụ ndị ọzọ, dị ka "isi iyi" ndị na-emetọ Mmiri dị n'okpuru ala. A na-achịkwa ọrụ ndị a.

 
Ezì ndị a na-azụ nke ọma

In 17 states in the U.S., isolated cases of groundwater contamination were linked to CAFOs.[37] The U.S. federal government acknowledges the waste disposal issue and requires that animal waste be stored in lagoons. These lagoons can be as large as Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Convert/data' not found.. Lagoons not protected with an impermeable liner can leak into groundwater under some conditions, as can runoff from manure used as fertilizer. A lagoon that burst in 1995 released 25 million gallons of nitrous sludge in North Carolina's New River. The spill allegedly killed eight to ten million fish.

Ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke ụmụ anụmanụ, ihe mkpofu anụmanụ, na ụmụ anụmanụ nwụrụ anwụ n'ime obere oghere na-eweta nsogbu omume ọma nye ụfọdụ ndị na-azụ ahịa. Ndị na-ahụ maka Ikike ụmụ anụmanụ na ọdịmma ụmụ anụmanụ ebubo na ịzụlite ụmụ anụmanụ siri ike bụ ihe obi ọjọọ nye ụmụ anụmanụ.

Ihe ọkụkụ

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Green Revolution gbanwere ọrụ ugbo n'ọtụtụ mba na-emepe emepe. Ọ gbasaa teknụzụ ndị dịbu adị, mana ejighị ya mee ihe n'ọtụtụ ebe na mpụga mba ndị mepere emepe. Nkà na ụzụ ndị a gụnyere "mkpụrụ ọrụ ebube", ọgwụ ahụhụ, ịgba mmiri, na fatịlaịza nitrogen.[38]

Mkpụrụ

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N'afọ ndị 1970, ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị mepụtara ụdị ọka, ọka wit, na osikapa na-amị mkpụrụ. Ndị a nwere ikike na-abawanye nitrogen ma e jiri ya tụnyere ụdị ndị ọzọ. Ebe ọ bụ na mkpụrụ ọka ndị na-amị nitrogen ọzọ ga-anọkarị (da) tupu owuwe ihe ubi, a zụlitere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na-agbagọ agbagọ n'ime genom ha. Norin 10 wheat, ụdị dị iche iche nke Orville Vogel mepụtara site na ụdị ọka wit dị mkpụmkpụ nke Japan, nyere aka n'ịmepụta ụdị ọka wit. IR8, osikapa mbụ a na-eme nke ọma nke International Rice Research Institute mepụtara, e kere ya site na ngwakọta n'etiti ụdị Indonesian a na-akpọ "Peta" na ụdị Chinese a na- bingaka "Dee Geo Woo Gen".[39]

Site na nnweta nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na Arabidopsis na osikapa, a na-emepụta mkpụrụ ndụ ihe mere eme nke na-akpata (ebelata ịdị elu (rht), gibberellin na-adịghị echebara echiche (gai1) na osikọta dị ka ihe mgbaàmà nke mkpụrụ ndụ nke gibberellic acid, phytohormone na-etinye aka n'ịchịkwa uto osisi site na mmetụta ya na nkewa mkpụrụ ndụ. A na-ebelata itinye ego na ogwe osisi ahụ n'ụzọ dị ịrịba ama na osisi ndị dị mkpirikpi na ihe oriri na-agagharị na mmepụta ọka, na-eme ka mmetụta nke fatịlaịza kemịkal dịkwuo ukwuu.

Ụdị ndị na-amị mkpụrụ dị elu karịrị ụdị ọdịnala ọtụtụ ugboro ma meghachi omume nke ọma na mgbakwunye nke ịgba mmiri, ọgwụ ahụhụ, na fatịlaịza. A na-eji Ike ngwakọta eme ihe n'ọtụtụ ihe ọkụkụ dị mkpa iji mụbaa ihe ọkụkụ maka ndị ọrụ ugbo. Otú ọ dị, uru ahụ na-efu maka ụmụ nke ngwakọta F1, nke pụtara na a ga-azụta mkpụrụ maka ihe ọkụkụ kwa afọ n'oge ọ bụla, si otú a na-abawanye ọnụahịa na uru maka ndị ọrụ ugbo.

Mgbanwe nke ihe ọkụkụ

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Foto Satellite nke ubi ubi okirikiri na Haskell County, Kansas, na ngwụcha June 2001. Ọ dị mma, ihe ọkụkụ na-eto eto nke ọka na sorghum bụ akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ (sorghum nwere ike ịdịtụ mma). Ọka wit bụ ọlaedo na-egbuke egbuke. N'oge na-adịbeghị anya, a na-ewepụta ubi ndị na-acha nchara nchara ma na-akọ ugbo n'okpuru ma ọ bụ na-anọ n'ọzara maka afọ ahụ.

Mgbanwe nke ihe ọkụkụ ma ọ bụ usoro ihe ọkụkụ bụ omume nke ịzụlite usoro ụdị ihe ọkụkụ dị iche iche n'otu oghere n'oge dị iche iche maka uru dị ka izere pathogen na mkpokọta ahụhụ nke na-eme mgbe a na-akụ otu ụdị. Mgbanwe nke ihe ọkụkụ na-achọkwa ịhazi ihe oriri nke ihe ọkpọkọ dị iche iche iji zere mmebi nke ihe ọkọnọ ala. Akụkụ ọdịnala nke ntụgharị ihe ọkụkụ bụ ịmegharị nitrogen site na iji legumes na fatịlaịza na-acha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ na usoro na ọka na ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ. Mgbanwe nke ihe ọkụkụ nwekwara ike imeziwanye Ọdịdị ala na uto site na ịgbanwere osisi ndị gbanyere mkpọrọgwụ na ndị na-adịghị omimi. Usoro yiri ya bụ ịkụ ọtụtụ ụdị ihe ọkụkụ n'etiti ihe ọkụkụ azụmahịa. Nke a jikọtara uru nke ọrụ ugbo siri ike na mkpuchi na-aga n'ihu na polyculture.

Ịgba mmiri

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Ịgba mmiri n'elu, imewe etiti

Ịgba mmiri na-akpata 70% nke ojiji mmiri dị ọcha n'ụwa.[40] A na-ekesa Ịgba mmiri mmiri nke idei mmiri, ụdị kachasị ochie na nke a na-ahụkarị, dịka akụkụ nke ubi nwere ike ịnata mmiri karịrị akarị iji nyefee akụkụ ndị ọzọ. Ịgba mmiri n'elu, site na iji sprinklers na-agagharị n'etiti ma ọ bụ n'akụkụ, na-enye usoro nkesa hà nhata na nke a na-achịkwa. Ịgba mmiri bụ ụdị kachasị ọnụ na nke a na-ejikarị eme ihe, mana ọ na-enye mmiri na mgbọrọgwụ na-enweghị obere mfu.[41]

Nzọụkwụ nchịkwa mmiri na-agụnye oghere mmiri, nke na-ejide mmiri ozuzo na mmiri na-agbapụta ma jiri ya mee ka mmiri dị n'okpuru ala dịghachi. Nke a na-enyere aka n'ime ka olulu mmiri dị n'okpuru ala dịghachi mma ma mesịa belata mbuze ala. Osimiri ndị a na-egbochi mmiri na-emepụta ọdọ mmiri na-echekwa mmiri maka ịgba mmiri na ojiji ndị ọzọ n'ebe buru ibu. Obere ebe na-eji ọdọ mmiri ma ọ bụ mmiri dị n'okpuru ala eme ihe mgbe ụfọdụ.

Nchịkwa ahịhịa

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N'ọrụ ugbo, a na-achọkarị njikwa ahịhịa, nke a na-ejikarị igwe dịka ndị ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ ndị na-agbanye mmiri. Herbicides na-egbu ndị a kapịrị ọnụ mgbe ha na-ahapụ ihe ọkụkụ ahụ n'enweghị mmerụ ahụ. Ụfọdụ n'ime ndị a na-arụ ọrụ site na igbochi uto nke ahịhịa ma na-adabere na homonụ osisi. Nchịkwa ahịhịa site na herbicide na-eme ka ọ sie ike mgbe ahịhịhịa na-eguzogide herbicide. Ihe ngwọta gụnyere:

  • Ihe ọkụkụ na-ekpuchi (karịsịa ndị nwere ihe ndị na-eme ka ihe ọkụkụ ghara ịdị ọhụrụ) nke na-emeri ahịhịa ma ọ bụ na-egbochi mmelite ha
  • Ọtụtụ herbicides, na njikọta ma ọ bụ na ntụgharị
  • Ọrịa ndị e ji mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa mee maka ịnagide ọgwụ herbicide
  • Ụdị ndị a na-ahụkarị n'ógbè ahụ nke na-anabata ma ọ bụ na-asọmpi ahịhịa
  • Ịchụpụ
  • Ihe mkpuchi ala dị ka mulch ma ọ bụ plastik
  • Iji aka wepụ ya
  • Ịkụchasị osisi
  • Ịkpa anụ
  • Ọkụ ọkụ
 
Ubi osikapa dị na Yunnan Province, China

N'ọrụ ugbo, ala bụ akụkụ dị larịị nke ebe a na-akọ ugbo n'ugwu, nke e mere dị ka usoro nchekwa ala iji belata ma ọ bụ gbochie mmiri na-agba mmiri ngwa ngwa. Ọtụtụ mgbe, a na-emepụta ala dị otú ahụ n'ọtụtụ ala, na-enye ọdịdị dị elu. Ọdịdị ala nke mmadụ nke ịkọ osikapa na terraces nke na-agbaso ọdịdị okike nke escarpments, dị ka ịkọ ugbo, bụ ihe dị mma nke agwaetiti Bali na Banaue Rice Terraces na Banaue, Ifugao, Philippines. Na Peru, ndị Inca jiri ndagwurugwu ndị a na-apụghị iji mee ihe site n'iwu mgbidi nkume iji mepụta ala ndị a maara dị ka Andens.

Osikapa osikapa

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Ubi paddy bụ ala a na-akọ ugbo nke a na-eji akụ osikapa na ihe ọkụkụ ndị ọzọ na-eme n'ime mmiri. Ubi Paddy bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị na mba ndị na-akụ osikapa n'Ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ na ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia, gụnyere Malaysia, China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Taiwan, Indonesia, India, na Philippines. A na-ahụkwa ha na mpaghara ndị ọzọ na-akụ osikapa dịka Piedmont (Italy), Camargue (France), na Artibonite Valley (Haiti). Ha nwere ike ịpụta n'ụzọ okike n'akụkụ osimiri ma ọ bụ marshes, ma ọ bụ enwere ike iwu ha, ọbụlagodi n'akụkụ ugwu. Ha chọrọ nnukwu mmiri maka ịgba mmiri, ọtụtụ n'ime ya sitere na idei mmiri. Ọ na-enye gburugburu ebe obibi dị mma maka ụdị osikapa a na-akụ, ọ na-emegide ọtụtụ ụdị ahịhịa. Dị ka naanị ụdị anụmanụ na-adọrọ adọrọ nke na-enwe ahụ iru ala n'atụ mmiri, a na-eji anụ ọhịa buffalo mmiri eme ihe n'ọtụtụ ebe n'ubi osikapa nke Eshia.[42]

Ọganihu na-adịbeghị anya na mmepụta siri ike nke osikapa bụ System of Rice Intensification.[43][44] N'ịbụ nke onye French Jesuit Father Henri de Laulanié mepụtara na 1983 na Madagascar, site na 2013 ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eji usoro ahụ etolitela n'etiti nde 4 na 5. [45]

Ịkpa Mmanụ n'Ime

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Aquaculture bụ ịzụlite ihe ndị sitere n'okike nke mmiri (azụ̀, shellfish, algae, seaweed, na ihe ndị ọzọ dị n'ime mmiri). A na-azụ anụ n'ala site na iji tankị, ọdọ mmiri, ma ọ bụ usoro ndị ọzọ a na-achịkwa, ma ọ dị n'oké osimiri, site na iji ụlọ.[46]

Nkwado

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Intensive farming practices which are thought to be sustainable  have been developed to slow the deterioration of agricultural land and even regenerate soil health and ecosystem services. [citation needed] These developments may fall in the category of organic farming, or the integration of organic and conventional agriculture.

Ịkụ ihe ubi n'ebe ịta ahịhịa na-agụnye ịkụ mkpụrụ ọka kpọmkwem n'ime ala ahịhịhịa n'ebughị ụzọ tinye ọgwụ herbicides. Ahịhịa ndị na-adịgide adịgide na-emepụta ala dị ndụ na ihe ọkụkụ, na-ewepụ mkpa ọ dị ịkụ ihe ọkụkụ mgbe owuwe ihe ubi gasịrị. A na-ata ahịhịa n'ụzọ siri ike ma tupu ma mgbe mmepụta ọka gasịrị. Usoro a siri ike na-eweta uru ndị ọrụ ugbo (n'akụkụ ụfọdụ site na anụ ụlọ na-abawanye) mgbe ha na-ewu ala ọhụrụ ma na-edebe ihe ruru tọn 33 nke CO2/ha / afọ.[47][48]

Ọrụ ugbo biointensive na-elekwasị anya n'ịkwalite arụmọrụ dịka mpaghara ọ bụla, ntinye ike na ntinye mmiri.

Agroforestry jikọtara ọrụ ugbo na teknụzụ ubi / osisi iji mepụta usoro iji mee ihe dị iche iche, dị iche iche.

Intercropping nwere ike ịbawanye ihe ọkụkụ ma ọ bụ belata ntinye ma si otú a na-anọchite anya (nke nwere ike ịnọgide na-aga n'ihu) mmụba ọrụ ugbo. Otú ọ dị, ọ bụ ezie na a na-amụba ihe ọkụkụ zuru oke n'otu mpaghara ala, ihe ọkụkụ ọ bụla na-ebelata mgbe niile. Enwekwara ihe ịma aka nye ndị ọrụ ugbo na-adabere na ngwá ọrụ ugbo kachasị mma maka monoculture, na-akpatakarị mmụba nke ọrụ.

Ọrụ ugbo kwụ ọtọ bụ mmepụta ihe ọkụkụ siri ike n'ọtụtụ obodo, n'ọtụtụ ụlọ, ihe owuwu na-enwu ọkụ, maka mmepụta nri na-enweghị calorie dị ka ahịhịa, microgreens, na lettuce.

Usoro ọrụ ugbo jikọtara ọnụ bụ usoro ọrụ ugbo na-aga n'ihu, nke na-adịgide adịgide dị ka ọrụ ugbo efu ma ọ bụ ọrụ ugbo mmiri jikọtara ọnụ, nke na'etiti mmekọrịta nke ọtụtụ ụdị. Akụkụ nke njikọta a nwere ike ịgụnye:

  • Kpachara anya webata osisi ndị na-agbasa okooko n'ime usoro ọrụ ugbo iji mụbaa pollen-na ihe ndị na-atọ ụtọ nke ndị iro nke ụmụ ahụhụ na-achọ
  • Iji ntụgharị ihe ọkụkụ na ikpuchi ihe ọkụkụ iji gbochie nematodes na poteto
  • Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture bụ omume nke a na-eji ihe ndị sitere n'otu ụdị eme ihe iji bụrụ ihe ntinye (mkpụrụ osisi, nri) maka nke ọzọ.

Ihe ịma aka

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Mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi

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Ọrụ ugbo na-eji nnukwu mmiri, ike,[49] na kemịkalụ ụlọ ọrụ, na-eme ka mmetọ dị n'ala a na-akọ ugbo, Mmiri a na-eji eme ihe, na ikuku. Herbicides, insecticides, na fatịlaịza na-agbakọta na mmiri dị n'ala na n'elu. Ọrụ ugbo ụlọ ọrụ bụ otu n'ime ndị isi na-akpata okpomọkụ ụwa, na-akọrọ 14-28% nke ikuku na-ekpo ọkụ.[50]

Ọtụtụ n'ime mmetụta ọjọọ nke ọrụ ugbo nwere ike ịpụta n'ebe dị anya site na ubi na ugbo. Nitrogen compounds si Midwest, dịka ọmụmaatụ, na-agbadata na Mississippi iji mebie azụ azụ n'ụsọ oké osimiri na Gulf of Mexico, na-akpata ihe a na-akpọ mpaghara nwụrụ anwụ nke oké osimiri.[51]

Ọtụtụ ụdị osisi na anụmanụ ọhịa adịkwaghị na mpaghara ma ọ bụ mba, a gbanwekwara ọrụ nke agro-ecosystems. Mgbasawanye ọrụ ugbo na-agụnye ihe dịgasị iche iche, gụnyere mfu nke ihe ndị dị n'ala, mmụba nke ugbo na ubi, na mmụba ojiji nke ọgwụ ahụhụ na ọgwụ ahịhịa. Ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke ọgwụ ahụhụ na ọgwụ ahịhịa na-eduga na mmegide na-eto eto n'etiti ụmụ ahụhụ na-eme ka ọgwụ ahịhi na ọgwụ ahụhụ ghara ịdị irè. Agrochemicals nwere ike itinye aka na nsogbu nke collapse colony, nke ndị otu aṅụ na-apụ n'anya.[52] (Nrụpụta ọrụ ugbo na-adabere nke ukwuu na aṅụ iji mee ka ọtụtụ ụdị mkpụrụ osisi na akwụkwọ nri na-agbasa.)

Ọrụ ugbo siri ike na-emepụta ọnọdụ maka uto na nnyefe nke parasites dị nnọọ iche na ihe parasites na-ezute n'etiti ndị bi na ya, nke nwere ike ịgbanwe nhọrọ na àgwà dịgasị iche iche dị ka àgwà akụkọ ndụ na virulence. Ụfọdụ ntiwapụ nke ọrịa na-efe efe n'oge na-adịbeghị anya emeela ka njikọ ahụ pụta ìhè na ọrụ ugbo siri ike. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, nje salmon anaemia (ISA) na-akpata nnukwu mfu akụ na ụba maka ugbo salmon. Nje ISA bụ orthomyxovirus nwere ụdị abụọ dị iche iche, otu Europe na otu North America, nke kewara tupu 1900 (Krossøy et al. 2001). [53] Ọdịiche a na-egosi na ụdị nna nna nke nje ahụ dị na salmonids ọhịa tupu iwebata salmonids a na-azụ n'ụlọ. Ka nje ahụ na-agbasa site na nnyefe kwụ ọtọ (onye nne na nna gaa na ụmụ) [nkọwa dị mkpa]. 

Mkpụrụ osisi monoculture siri ike na-eme ka ihe ize ndụ nke ọdịda n'ihi ihe na-efe efe, ihu igwe na ọrịa.[54][55]

Mmetụta mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya

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Nnyocha e mere maka Ụlọ Ọrụ Na-ahụ Maka Nkà na Ụzụ nke United States kwubiri na gbasara ọrụ ugbo nke ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe, e nwere "mmekọrịta na-adịghị mma n'etiti omume na-aga n'ihu n'ịba ụba nke ugbo na ọnọdụ mmekọrịta ọha na eze n'ime ime obodo" na "ọkwa ngụkọ".[67] Otu onye ọrụ ugbo nwere ike ibute ihe egwu ọha na eze na akụ na ụba.[56]

Hụkwa

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Ebem si dee

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  1. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica, revised and updated by Amy Tikkanen. 's definition of Intensive Agriculture. britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2008-06-24. Retrieved on 2019-09-21.
  2. ↑ (2009) in Lichtfouse: Sustainable Agriculture. Dordrecht: Springer. DOI:10.1007/978-90-481-2666-8. ISBN 978-90-481-2665-1. Retrieved on 2019-09-21. 
  3. ↑ Sustainable Intensification for Smallholders (en). Project Drawdown (2020-02-06). Archived from the original on 2021-11-17. Retrieved on 2020-10-16.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Getting Started with Intensive Grazing. Manitoba Agriculture. Manitoba Government. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved on 21 September 2019. “There are many reasons why producers move to intensive grazing systems. These include...”
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named PastProfit
  6. ↑ Kingsbury (2009). Hybrid: The History and Science of Plant Breeding. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226437132. 
  7. ↑ Brettman. "Collectors at Great Oregon Steam-Up are always steamed about their passion", The Oregonian, July 24, 2010. Retrieved on September 20, 2019.
  8. ↑ Ottawa Valley Land Rovers – Member's Prose & Pages – Mike Rooth – Locomotives – Steam Tractor, Part I. ovlr.org. Archived from the original on 2019-08-29. Retrieved on 2019-12-31.
  9. ↑ Steam Engines. History Link 101. History Source LLC (2019). Archived from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved on 20 September 2019.
  10. ↑ Janick, Jules. Agricultural Scientific Revolution: Mechanical. Purdue University. Archived from the original on 2013-05-25. Retrieved on 2013-05-24.
  11. ↑ Reid, John F. (Fall 2011). "The Impact of Mechanization on Agriculture". The Bridge on Agriculture and Information Technology 41 (3). Retrieved on 2013-11-05. 
  12. ↑ Semba (2012). "The discovery of the vitamins". International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 82 (5): 310–315. DOI:10.1024/0300-9831/a000124. ISSN 0300-9831. PMID 23798048. 
  13. ↑ A Historical Perspective. International Fertilizer Industry Association. Archived from the original on 2012-03-09. Retrieved on 2013-05-07.
  14. ↑ Hoelzer (2018-07-31). "Vaccines as alternatives to antibiotics for food producing animals. Part 1: challenges and needs". Veterinary Research 49 (1): 64. DOI:10.1186/s13567-018-0560-8. ISSN 1297-9716. PMID 30060757. 
  15. ↑ Kirchhelle (2018-08-07). "Pharming animals: a global history of antibiotics in food production (1935–2017)" (in en). Palgrave Communications 4 (1): 1–13. DOI:10.1057/s41599-018-0152-2. ISSN 2055-1045. 
  16. ↑ US EPA (2015-09-28). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Principles (en). US EPA. Archived from the original on 2017-07-29. Retrieved on 2021-05-22.
  17. ↑ Integrated Pest Management | Sustainable Campus. sustainablecampus.cornell.edu. Retrieved on 2023-07-05.
  18. ↑ Indicativo de pastagens plantadas em processo de degradação no bioma Cerrado (pt-BR). embrapa.br – Portal Embrapa. Archived from the original on 2018-06-15. Retrieved on 2018-03-28.
  19. ↑ Bogaerts (2017). "Climate change mitigation through intensified pasture management: Estimating greenhouse gas emissions on cattle farms in the Brazilian Amazon". Journal of Cleaner Production 162: 1539–1550. DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.130. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Cardoso (2016). "Impact of the intensification of beef production in Brazil on greenhouse gas emissions and land use". Agricultural Systems 143: 86–96. DOI:10.1016/j.agsy.2015.12.007. Retrieved on 2018-12-24. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Talamini (2017). "Improving feed efficiency as a strategy to reduce beef carbon footprint in the Brazilian Midwest region" (in en). International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development 16 (4): 379. DOI:10.1504/ijesd.2017.10007706. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Ruviaro (2015). "Carbon footprint in different beef production systems on a southern Brazilian farm: a case stud". Journal of Cleaner Production 96: 435–443. DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.037. Retrieved on 2019-12-14. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Zimmer (2012-11-01). Degradação, recuperação e renovação de pastagens. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Balbino (2014-03-01). Integrated systems: what they are, their advantages and limitations, 11–18. ISBN 9788570352972. 
  25. ↑ de Figueiredo (2017). "Greenhouse gas balance and carbon footprint of beef cattle in three contrasting pasture-management systems in Brazil". Journal of Cleaner Production 142: 420–431. DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.132. 
  26. ↑ 12 Aprils Dairy Grazing Manual. USDA-SARE. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved on 1 October 2014.
  27. ↑ Beetz (2004). Rotational grazing: Livestock systems guide. National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA). 
  28. ↑ Sanjari, G. (2008). Comparing the effects of continuous and time-controlled grazing systems on soil characteristics in Southeast Queensland 48–358. Soil Research 46 (CSIRO Publishing). Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved on 2014-10-01.
  29. ↑ Teague, W. R. (May 2011). "Grazing management impacts on vegetation, soil biota and soil chemical, physical and hydrological properties in tall grass prairie". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 141 (3–4): 310–322. DOI:10.1016/j.agee.2011.03.009. 
  30. ↑ Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":
  31. ↑ Sources discussing "industrial farming", "industrial agriculture" and "factory farming":
  32. ↑ "Is factory farming really cheaper?" in New Scientist, Institution of Electrical Engineers, New Science Publications, University of Michigan, 1971, p. 12.
  33. ↑ Nierenberg (2005). Happier meals : rethinking the global meat industry, Lisa Mastny, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute. ISBN 1-878071-77-7. OCLC 62104329. 
  34. ↑ Duram (2010). Encyclopedia of Organic, Sustainable, and Local Food. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35963-7. 
  35. ↑ Van Boeckel (2015-05-05). "Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112 (18): 5649–5654. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1503141112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 25792457. 
  36. ↑ admin (2023-04-23). Intensive farming (en-US). tuoitho.edu.vn. Archived from the original on 2023-07-05. Retrieved on 2023-07-05.
  37. ↑ CAFOs & Clean Water Act. Archived from the original on 2013-11-05. Retrieved on 2013-11-05.
  38. ↑ Brown, 1970.
  39. ↑ Rice Varieties. IRRI Knowledge Bank. Archived from the original on 2006-07-13. Retrieved on 2006-07-13.
  40. ↑ Pimentel, Berger, et al., "Water resources: agricultural and environmental issues", BioScience 54.10 (Oct 2004), p909
  41. ↑ Drip Irrigation System for sustainable agriculture. Agriculture land usa. Retrieved on 2024-03-07.
  42. ↑ Methane – Rice. ghgonline.org. Archived from the original on 2018-10-19. Retrieved on 2007-05-26.
  43. ↑ SRI Concepts and Methods Applied to Other Crops. Cornell University. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved on 1 October 2014.
  44. ↑ The System of Crop Intensification Agroecological Innovations for Improving Agricultural Production, Food Security, and Resilience to Climate Change. SRI International Network and Resources Center. Cornell University. Archived from the original on 26 September 2014. Retrieved on 1 October 2014.
  45. ↑ Vidal. "India's rice revolution", The Observer, The Guardian, 16 February 2013. Retrieved on 14 December 2016.
  46. ↑ Answers. Agriculture. Answers.com. Archived from the original on 2017-09-14. Retrieved on 2007-05-21.
  47. ↑ Leu. Mitigating Climate Change With Soil Organic Matter in Organic Production Systems. Trade and environment review 2013, Commentary V 22–32. UNCTAD. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved on 28 September 2014.
  48. ↑ Bradley (7 December 2010). Why Pasture Cropping is such a Big Deal. Milkwood. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved on 10 January 2014.
  49. ↑ Moseley, W.G. 2011. "Make farming energy efficient". Atlanta Journal-Constitution. June 3. pg. 15A.. ajc.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-28. Retrieved on 2013-11-05.
  50. ↑ Mbow (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security", IPCC SRCCL, 439–442. Retrieved on 2019-12-30. 
  51. ↑ What is a dead zone?. NOAA. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved on 18 April 2015. “The largest hypoxic zone in the United States, and the second largest hypoxic zone worldwide, forms in the northern Gulf of Mexico adjacent to the Mississippi River. This image from a NOAA animation shows how runoff from farms (green areas) and cities (red areas) drains into the Mississippi. This runoff contains an overabundance of nutrients from fertilizers, wastewater treatment plants, and other sources.”
  52. ↑ Loarie (2014-05-02). The Case of the Vanishing Bees. EarthJustice. Archived from the original on 2015-04-19. Retrieved on 18 April 2015.
  53. ↑ Krossøy (2001). "Phylogenetic analysis of infectious salmon anaemia virus isolates from Norway, Canada and Scotland". Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 44 (1): 1–6. DOI:10.3354/dao044001. ISSN 0177-5103. PMID 11253869. 
  54. ↑ For example:Berbee (1976). "Detection and elimination of viruses in poplars", Intensive Plantation Culture: Five Years Research, USDA Forest Service general technical report NC. St. Paul, Minnesota: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. “In the north-central States, the intensive culture of certain species and hybrids of poplars presents the greatest opportunity to achieve maximum wood fiber production, provided that adequate provision can be made for control of the many insects and diseases that may attack them. [...] The [...] trend toward monoculture [...] increases the vulnerability of the cropping system to insects and diseases. The greatest potential for insidious disaster due to virus diseases is with monocultures of vegetatively propagated perennial crops.” 
  55. ↑ Mander (2002). "Industrializing Nature and Agriculture", in Kimbrell: The Fatal Harvest Reader: The Tragedy of Industrial Agriculture. Washington: Island Press. ISBN 9781597262804. Retrieved on 30 November 2019. “Industrial monocultures—single crops where there was once diversity, and single varieties of each crop where there used to be thousands—are also blows against biological and genetic diversity. [...] Monocultures are weak, subject to insect blights, diseases, and bad weather.” 
  56. ↑ United States. Department of Agriculture (1973). Monoculture in Agriculture: Extent, Causes, and Problems-report of the Task Force on Spatial Heterogeneity in Agricultural Landscapes and Enterprises. Washington. Retrieved on 30 November 2019. “In addition to being relatively unstable agricultural ecosystems, monocultures are also vulnerable to disaster from social and economic disruptions.” 
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