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Ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi

uru kere site na okike, oke ohia na usoro gburugburu ebe obibi

Ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi bụ ọtụtụ uru dị iche iche nke a na-enye ụmụ mmadụ site na gburugburu ebe obibi na gburugburu ebe obibi ahụike. Usoro gburugburu ebe obibi ndị dị otú ahụ gụnyere, dịka ọmụmaatụ, agroecosystems, oke ọhịa, gburugburu ebe obibi ahịhịa, na gburugburu ebe obibi mmiri. Usoro gburugburu ebe obibi ndị a, na-arụ ọrụ na mmekọrịta dị mma, na-enye ihe ndị dị ka mmetọ nke ihe ọkụkụ, ikuku dị ọcha, mbelata ihu igwe dị oke egwu, na ahụike uche na anụ ahụ mmadụ. N'ozuzu, a na-akpọ uru ndị a dị ka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi, ma na-abụkarị ihe dị mkpa n'inye nri, inye mmiri ọṅụṅụ dị ọcha, nbibi nke ihe mkpofu, na nkwụsi ike na mmepụta nke gburugburu ebe obibi nri.

Aṅụ nọ n'elụ ihe ọkụkụ Avocado. Mkpụrụ osisi bụ naanị otu ụdị ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi.
Ugwu ala dị na Wales, na-eme ka isi iyi nke Osimiri Severn. Ubi dị mma na-ejide carbon, na'egbochi mmiri wee belata ihe ize ndụ nke idei mmiri, ma na -eweghachi mmiri dị ọcha karịa ebe obibi mebiri emebi.
Ọhịa ọha na eze na Andhra Pradesh, India, na-enye mmanụ, nchebe ala, ndò, ọbụnakwa ọdịmma maka ndị njem.

Ọ bụ ezie na ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị na gburugburu ebe obibi atụlewo ọrụ gburugburu ụwa n'ụzọ na-apụtaghị ìhè ruo ọtụtụ iri afọ, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) na mbido afọ 2000 mere ka echiche a bụrụ ihe a ma ama.[1] N'ebe ahụ, a na-achịkọta ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n'ụdị anọ sara mbara: inye ihe, dị ka mmepụta nri na mmiri; ịchịkwa, dịka ịchịkọta ihu igwe na ọrịa; nkwado,dị ka usoro nri nri dị na mmepe oxygen; na ọdịbendị, Dị ka uru ime mmụọ na ntụrụndụ. Iji nyere aka mee ka ndị na-eme mkpebi mara, a na'enyocha ọtụtụ ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi iji mee ntụnyere yiri ya na akụrụngwa na ọrụ ndị mmadụ.

Esturine na gburugburu ebe obibi bụ gburugburu mmiri. N'ịkọkọ, gburugburu ebe obibi ndị a na-arụ ọrụ anọ nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n'ụzọ dị iche iche: "ọrụ nchịkwa" gụnyere nhazi ihu igwe yana ọgwụgwọ mkpofu na nhazi ọrịa na mpaghara nchekwa. "Ọrụ inye" gụnyere ngwaahịa ọhịa dị ka osisi, ngwaahịa mmiri, mmiri dị ọcha, akụrụngwa, na biochemical na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa. "Ọrụ omenala" nke gburugburu ebe obibi dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri gụnyere akụkụ mkpali, ntụrụndụ na njem nlegharị anya, sayensị na agụmakwụkwọ. "Ọrụ nkwado" nke gburugburu ebe obibi dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri gụnyere ịgba ígwè na-edozi ahụ, ebe obibi nke usoro ndu, na mmepụta bụ isi.  

Nkọwa

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A na-akọwa ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi ma ọ bụ ọrụ mpaghara dị ka ngwongwo na ọrụ ndị gburugburu ụlọ na ụmụ mmadụ nyere.[2] Dika nkọwa nke 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi bụ "uru ndị mmadụ na-enweta site na gburugburu ụlọ". MA kọwakwara ụdị anọ nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na-akwado, na'inye, ịchịkwa, ma na omenala a tụlere n'okpuru ebe a. N'okwu dị mfe inye ihe oriri, mmiri, osisi, eriri, na inye ọgwụ.

Ka ọ na-erule afọ 2010, e nweela nkọwa ọrụ dị iche iche na nkọwa nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n'akwụkwọ. Iji gbochie ịgụta okpukpu abụọ na nyocha ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi, dịka ọmụmaatụ, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) dochie "Supporting Services" na MA na "Habitat Services "ecosystem functions", akọwapụtara dị ka "otu akụkụ nke mmekọrịta dị n'etiti usoro gburugburu ụlọ na usoro nke na-akwado ikike nke gburugburu obodo iji nye ngwaahịa na ọrụ".

Ụdị

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Ihe ndị na-eri nri dị ka nsị a na'enyere aka ịgbanwe ihe mkpofu anụmanụ ka ọ bụrụ ihe ndị dị ndụ nke ndị isi na ya nwere ike iji mee ihe ọzọ.

Ụdị ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi anọ dị iche iche bụ ndị sayensị achọpụtala: ọrụ nhazi, ọrụ inye, ọrụ omenala na ọrụ nkwado. Usoro gburugburu ebe obibi anaghị enye ụdị ọrụ anọ niile n'otu oge; ma n'ihi ọdịdị dị mgbagwoju anya nke gburugburu ebe obibi ọ bụla, a na-echekarị na ụmụ mmadụ na-erite uru site na nchikota nke ọrụ ndị a. Ọrụ ndị dị iche iche nke gburugburu ebe obibi na-enye (oke ọhịa, oke osimiri, coral reefs, mangroves, wdg) dị iche na ọdịdị na n'ihi ya. N'ezie, ụfọdụ ọrụ na-emetụta kpọmkwem ndụ ndị mmadụ gbara agbata obi (dị ka mmiri ọhụrụ, nri ma ọ bụ uru mara mma, wdg) ebe ọrụ ndị ọzọ na-emetụta ọnọdụ gburugburu ebe obibi izugbe nke na-emetụta ụmụ mmadụ n'ụzọ na-apụtaghị ìhè (dị ka mgbanwe ihu igwe, iwu mmebi, iwu ihe egwu, wdg)[3]

Akụkọ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment nke 2005 kọwara ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka uru ndị mmadụ na-enweta site na gburugburu ụlọ ọrụ ma na'etiti ụdị anọ nke ọrụ ecosystem, ebe a na - a-ewere ọrụ nkwado dị Ka ihe ndabere maka ọrụ nke ụdị atọ ndị ọzọ.[1]

Nchịkwa ọrụ

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  • Ịsacha mmiri na ikuku
  • Mgbochi carbon na nhazi ihu igwe
  • Mmebi nke ihe mkpofu na mbupụ nke nsị
  • Predation na-achịkwa ọnụ ọgụgụ anụ oriri
  • Nchịkwa nje na ọrịa
  • Mkpụrụ osisi
  • Nchịkwa nsogbu, ya bụ nchebe idei mmiri[4]

Ọrụ inye ihe

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A makwaara ọrụ ndị a dị ka ngwaahịa gburugburu ebe obibi:[5]

  • nri (gụnyere nri mmiri na egwuregwu), ihe ọkụkụ, nri ọhịa, na ihe na-esi ísì ụtọ
  • ihe ndị a na-emepụta (gụnyere osisi, akpụkpọ anụ, mmanụ, ihe ọkụkụ, nri, na fatịlaịza)
  • ihe onwunwe mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa (gụnyere mkpụrụedemede mmezi ihe ọkụkụ, na nlekọta ahụike)
  • Mmanụ ndị sitere n'ihe ndị dị ndụ
  • ihe ndị na-agwọ ọrịa (gụnyere ọgwụ, ụdị kemịkal, na ihe nyocha na nyocha)
  • ike (ike mmiri, mmanụ agbịdị)
  • ihe ịchọ mma (gụnyere ejiji, ọrụ aka, ọla, anụ ụlọ, ofufe, ịchọ ụlọ mma, na ihe ncheta dị ka akpụkpọ anụ, ábụ́bà, ọdụ́, orchid, urukurubụba, azụ aquarium, mkpokoro, wdg.)

Ọrụ ọdịnala

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  • omenala (gụnyere iji okike eme ihe dị ka ihe na akwụkwọ, ihe nkiri, eserese, akụkọ ọdịnala, akara mba, mgbasa ozi, wdg.)
  • nke ime mmụọ na nke akụkọ ihe mere eme (gụnyere iji okike eme ihe maka uru okpukpe ma ọ bụ ihe nketa maọbụ okpomọkụ)
  • Ahụmahụ ntụrụndụ (gụnyere njem gburugburu ebe obibi, egwuregwu n'èzí, na ntụgharị)
  • sayensị na agụmakwụkwọ (gụnyere iji usoro okike maka njem ụlọ akwụkwọ, na nchọpụta sayensi)
  • ọgwụgwọ (gụnyere ọgwụ mgbochi gburugburu ebe obibi, ọrụ ọhịa na ọgwụgwụ anụmanụ)

Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 2012, enwere mkparịta ụka banyere otu esi arụ ọrụ nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi ọdịbendị, otu ihe mara mma nke ala, ihe nketa ọdịnala, ntụrụndụ n"èzí, na ihe ime mmụọ dị mkpa ịkọwa nwere ike ịdaba n-usoro ọrụ ecosystem. ndị na'otu maka ihe nlereanya ndị jikọtara nlezianya na ọrụ na ọdịdị na uru ọdịda.[6] N'otu aka ahụ, enwere nkatọ dị mkpa banyere echiche nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi ọdịbendị nke na-ewulite na arụmụka atọ:[7]

  1. Ụkpụrụ ọdịbendị dị mkpa na-ejikọta na gburugburu ebe obibi / a na'ubi na na a pụrụ iche nke mpaghara nke a pụghị idozi site na usoro ndị na - usoro sayensị zuru ụwa ọnụ iji chọpụta usoro na ọrụ gburugburu.
  2. Ọ bụrụ na ebe okike / ebe a na-akọ ugbo nwere ihe nnọchianya na ụkpụrụ ọdịbendị ihe ndị a abụghị usoro okpomọkụ kama ọ bụ ihe dị ka ugwu, ọdọ mmiri, ọhịa, na, karịsịa, ọdịdị ihe atụ.[8]
  3. Ụkpụrụ ọdịbendị anaghị esi na njirimara nke usoro okike mepụtara kama ọ bụ ngwaahịa nke otu ụzọ a kapịrị ọnụ nke ịhụ n'ime usoro ọdịnala enyere nke ahụmịhe ihe atụ.[9]

The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) bụ atụmatụ nkewa mepụtara na usoro ndekọ ego (dị ka National counts wdg), iji zere ịgụta okpukpu abụọ nke Ọrụ Nkwado na ndị ọzọ Provisioning and Regulating Services.[10]

Ọrụ nkwado

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Ihe ndị a nwere ike ịbụ ihe na-enweghị isi na ọrụ nchịkwa na ngalaba ụfọdụ, mana gụnyere ọrụ dịka, ma ọ bụghị naanị, ịgba ọsọ nri, mmepụta mbụ, nhazi ala, inye ebe obibi. Ọrụ ndị a na-eme ka o kwe omume ka usoro okike gaa n'ihu na ịnye ọrụ dịka nri, nchịkwa idei mmiri, na ịdị ọcha mmiri. Slade et al. depụtara ọnọdụ ebe ọnụ ọgụgụ ka ukwuu nke ụdị ga-eme ka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi dịkwuo ukwuu[11]

Mmekọrịta gburugburu ebe obibi

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Nghọta nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi chọrọ ntọala siri ike na ecology, nke na-akọwa ụkpụrụ dị n'okpuru na mmekọrịta nke ihe ndị dị ndụ na gburugburu ebe obibi. Ebe ọ bụ na akpịrịkpa nke ụlọ ọrụ ndị a na-emekọrịta ihe nwere ike ịdịgasị iche site na microbes ruo na mbara ala, milliseconds ruo ọtụtụ nde afọ, otu n'ime ihe ịma aka kasịnụ fọdụrụnụ bụ nkọwa nkọwa nke ike na ihe onwunwe na-aga n'etiti ha. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, mpaghara nke oke ọhịa, detritus dị n'elu ya, obere ihe ndị dị na ala, ọdịdị ala dị iche iche, na àgwà nke ala n'onwe ya ga-enye aka na ikike nke ọhịa ahụ maka ịnye ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka carbon sequestration, mmiri. ịdị ọcha, na mgbochi mbuze na mpaghara ndị ọzọ n'ime mmiri mmiri. Rịba ama na ọ na-enwekarị ike ijikọta ọtụtụ ọrụ ọnụ na mgbe echekwabara uru nke ebumnobi ezubere iche, a nwekwara ike ịnwe uru enyemaka - otu ọhịa ahụ nwere ike inye ebe obibi maka ihe ndị dị ndụ ndị ahụ ọzọ yana ntụrụndụ mmadụ, nke bụkwa ọrụ gburugburu ebe dị.

Mgbagwoju anya nke gburugburu ụwa na-ebute ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ihe ịma aka ka ha na-agbalị ịghọta ka mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ihe ndị dị ndụ, usoro na gburugburu ha. Dị ka ọ na-emetụta gburugburu ebe obibi mmadụ, atụmatụ nyocha a tụrụ aro maka ọmụmụ nke ọrụ gburugburu ụlọ ọrụ gụnyere usoro ndị a:[12]

  1. njirimara nke ndị na-enye ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi (ESPs) ma ọ bụ ndị mmadụ na - na
  2. mkpebi nke akụkụ nke nhazi obodo nke na-emetụta otú ESPs si arụ ọrụ na ala ha, dị ka nzaghachi nkwụghachi ụgwọ nke mere ka ọrụ kwụsie ike na usoro mkpochapụ na'enweghị atụ nke nwere ike imebi ya.
  3. nyocha nke isi ihe ndị metụtara gburugburu ebe obibi (abiotic) na-emetụta inye ọrụ;
  4. nyocha nke oghere na oge ESPs na ọrụ ha na-arụ ọrụ.

N'oge na-adịbeghị anya, e mepụtara usoro iji melite ma mee ka nyocha nke ọrụ ESP dị mma site n'ịtụle mkpa dị iche iche dị nro n"ihe gbasara arụmọrụ na ụba ha.[13] Akụkụ ndị dị otú ahụ na-enye ihe ngosi nke ka ụdị dị iche iche si emeghachi omume na mgbanwe na gburugburu ebe obibi (ya bụ ndị na-eri anụ, nnweta ihe onwunwe, ihu igwe) ma bara uru maka ịchọta ụdị ndị na-adịghị mkpa n'inye ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi. Otú ọ dị, ihe ndọghachi azụ dị oke egwu bụ na usoro ahụ anaghị agụta mmetụta nke mmekọrịta, nke na-abụkarị ma mgbagwoju anya ma dị mkpa n'ịkwado gburugburu ebe obibi ma nwee ike ịgụnye ụdị ndị na-adịghị ngwa ngwa dị ka ihe mbụ. N'agbanyeghị nke ahụ, ịtụle nhazi ọrụ nke gburugburu ebe obibi na ijikọta ya na ozi gbasara àgwà ụdị mmadụ n'otu n'otu nwere ike inyere anyị aka ịghọta nkwụsi ike nke gburugburu ebe obibi n'etiti mgbanwe gburugburu ebe obibi.

Ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta ihe ndị dị ndụ na-ekwenyekwa na a ga-eji ihe dị iche iche dị ndụ mee ka inye ọrụ nke gburugburu ebe obibi guzosie ike. Ịbawanye ihe dị iche iche dị ndụ na-eritekwa uru dị iche iche ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi dị na ọha mmadụ. Ịghọta mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ihe dị iche iche dị ndụ na nkwụsi ike nke gburugburu ebe obibi dị mkpa maka njikwa akụrụngwa na ọrụ ha.

Echiche nke ihe efu

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A na-akpọ echiche nke ihe efu nke gburugburu ebe obibi mgbe ụfọdụ dị ka ụgwọ ọrụ ma na'echiche na ihe karịrị otu ụdị na na - na[14] Karịsịa, a na-akọwa ya site na otu ụdị na - na: ọ na na (na-eme ka arụmọrụ ya dịkwuo mma n'inye ọrụ mgbe a kwusiri ike na ọnọdụ iji nọgide na ibe ya na gburugburu ebe obibi.[15] Otú ọ dị, ịdabere n'ụdị a na-akwụ ụgwọ dị otú ahụ na-etinyekwu nrụgide na gburugburu ebe obibi ma na-emekarị ka ọ nwee ike ịkpata ọgba aghara na-esote.[16] Enwere ike ichikota echiche nke ihe efu dị ka "ụdị na-akwalite nkwụsi ike gburugburu ebe obibi"..[17]

Echiche ọzọ na-eji ihe atụ nke rivets na nku ụgbọelu iji tụnyere mmetụta dị egwu nke ọnwụ nke ụdị ọ bụla ga-enwe na ọrụ nke gburugburu ebe obibi; a na'akpọ nke a mgbe ụfọdụ dị ka rivet popping.[18] Ọ bụrụ na ọ bụ naanị otu ụdị na-apụ n'anya, ọnwụ nke arụmọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n"ozuzu ya dị obere; Otú ọ dị, ọ bụrụgodị na ọtụtụ ụdị furu efu, usoro ahụ ga-ada nʼụzọ dị ukwuu dị ka ụgbọelu nke furu ọtụtụ rivets. Echiche ahụ na-eche na ụdị dị iche iche bụ ndị pụrụ iche na ọrụ ha nakwa na ikike ha ịkwụ ụgwọ maka ibe ha dị obere karịa na echiche nke redundancy. N'ihi ya, ọnwụ nke ụdị ọ bụla dị oke mkpa maka arụmọrụ nke gburugburu ebe obibi. Isi ihe dị iche bụ ọnụego nke ọnwụ nke ụdị na-emetụta ọrụ zuru oke nke gburugburu ebe obibi.

Mmetụta nke pọtụfoliyo

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Nkọwa nke atọ, nke a maara dị ka mmetụta nke pọtụfoliyo, na-eji ụdị dị iche iche tụnyere ngwaahịa, ebe ụdị ọ bụla na'ebelata mgbanwe nke itinye ego, ma ọ bụ n'ọnọdụ a, ihe ize ndụ nke ọgba aghara nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi.[19] Nke a nwere njikọ na echiche nke nzaghachi dị iche iche ebe ọtụtụ ụdị ga-egosipụta nzeghachi omume dịgasị iche na nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi. Mgbe a tụlere ha ọnụ, ha na-emepụta ọrụ na'ịkwado nke na - echekwa iguzosi ike n'ezi ihe nke ọrụ.[20]

Ọtụtụ nnwale anwalewo echiche ndị a ma n'ọhịa ma na ụlọ nyocha. Na ECOTRON, ụlọ nyocha dị na UK ebe enwere ike ịme ọtụtụ ihe ndị na-eme ka ihe dị ndụ na ihe na ya dị ọcha, ọmụmụ ihe lekwasịrị anya na mmetụta nke earthworms na symbiotic bacteria na mgbọrọgwụ osisi.[18] Nnyocha ndị a nke ụlọ nyocha yiri ka ha na-akwado echiche rivet. Otú ọ dị, nnyocha na ala ahịhịa na Cedar Creek Reserve na Minnesota na-akwado echiche nke redundancy, dị ka ọtụtụ ọmụmụ ihe ndị ọzọ.[21]

Ọrụ ndị dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri na ndị na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi

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Estuarine na gburugburu mmiri dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri bụ gburugburu ebe obibi mmiri. N'ịkọkọ, gburugburu ebe obibi ndị a na-arụ ọrụ anọ nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n'ụzọ dị iche iche: "ọrụ nchịkwa" gụnyere nhazi ihu igwe yana ọgwụgwọ mkpofu na nhazi ọrịa na mpaghara nchekwa. "Ọrụ inye" gụnyere ngwaahịa ọhịa, ngwaahịa mmiri, mmiri dị ọcha, akụrụngwa, biochemical na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa. "Ọrụ omenala" nke gburugburu ebe obibi dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri gụnyere akụkụ mkpali, ntụrụndụ na njem nlegharị anya, sayensị na agụmakwụkwọ. "Ọrụ nkwado" nke gburugburu ebe obibi dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri gụnyere ịgba ígwè na-edozi ahụ, ebe obibi ndụ na usoro mmepụta ihe.

Ụsọ oke osimiri na mpaghara ha dị n'akụkụ na n'akụkụ oke osimiri bụ akụkụ dị mkpa nke gburugburu ebe obibi. Ngwakọta nke mmiri ọhụrụ na mmiri nnu (mmiri brackish) na estuaries na-enye ọtụtụ nri maka ndụ mmiri. Mmiri nnu, mangroves na osimiri na-akwadokwa ụdị osisi dị iche iche, anụmanụ na ụmụ ahụhụ dị mkpa maka usoro nri. Ọkwa dị elu nke ihe ndị dị ndụ dị iche iche na-emepụta ọkwa dị elu nke ọrụ ndu, nke dọtara ọrụ mmadụ ruo ọtụtụ puku afọ. Oke osimiri na-emepụtakwa ihe dị mkpa maka ihe ndị dị ndụ ga-ebi na ya, gụnyere estuaries, wetland, seagrass, coral reefs, and mangroves. Oke osimiri na-enye ebe obibi maka nnụnụ ndị na-akwaga mba ọzọ, nduru mmiri, anụ mamma nke mmiri na coral reefs..[22]

Nchịkwa ọrụ

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Ọrụ nchịkwa bụ "uru ndị a na-enweta site na nchịkọta usoro gburugburu ebe obibi".[23] N'ihe banyere gburugburu ebe obibi dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri na n"ọnụ mmiri, ọrụ ndị a gụnyere nhazi ihu igwe, ọgwụgwọ mkpofu na nchịkwa ọrịa na nhazi ihe ize ndụ okike.

Nchịkwa ihu igwe

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Ma mkpokọta biotic na abiotic nke gburugburu ebe obibi mmiri na-ekere òkè na nhazi ihu igwe. Ha na-eme dị ka sponges mgbe ọ na-abịakwute gas na ikuku, na-ejigide nnukwu ọkwa nke CO2 na ndị ọzọ griin haus gas (methane na nitrous oxide). Osisi mmiri na-ejikwa CO2 maka ebumnuche photosynthesis ma nyere aka n'ibelata ikuku CO2. Oké osimiri na oké osimiri na-amịkọrọ okpomọkụ site na ikuku ma na-ekesa ya site na mmiri mmiri, na usoro ikuku, dị ka evaporation na ngosipụta nke ìhè na-enye ohere dị jụụ na ikpo ọkụ nke ikuku na-ekpo ọkụ. Okpomọkụ nke oke osimiri dị oke mkpa maka nhazi nke ikuku ikuku n'akụkụ ọ bụla nke ụwa: "na-enweghị oké osimiri, ụwa ga-ekpo ọkụ nke ukwuu n'oge ìhè ehihie na oyi na-atụ oyi, ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụghị oyi, n'abalị".[24]

Ọgwụgwọ mkpofu na nchịkwa ọrịa

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Ọrụ ọzọ a na-enye site na gburugburu ebe obibi mmiri bụ ọgwụgwọ nke ihe mkpofu, si otú a na-enyere aka na nhazi nke ọrịa. Enwere ike ịgbanye ihe mkpofu ma mebie ya site na ibufe ihe ndị dị ndụ n'oké osimiri; A na-ewepụ ihe ndị na-emetọ ihe na gburugburu ebe obibi ma chekwaa, lie ma ọ bụ megharịa ya n'ime ihe ndị dị ndụ n'oké osimiri: "Mkpụrụ ndụ mmiri na-agbaji ihe mkpofu ahịhịa site na obodo microbial na-enyocha mmiri, belata / na-egbochi mmetụta nke eutrophication, ma na-akụda hydrocarbons na-egbu egbu n'ime ihe ndị bụ isi dị ka carbon. dioxide, nitrogen, phosphorus, na mmiri".[24] Eziokwu ahụ bụ na a na-eji mmiri buru ibu na-ekpofu ihe mkpofu ma na-ebugharị na mmiri mmiri na-eduga na nhazi nke ọrịa na ibelata nsị na nri mmiri.

Ebe ndị na-egbochi

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Usoro okike dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri na nke dị na mmiri na-arụ ọrụ dị ka ebe mgbochi megide ihe ize ndụ okpomọkụ na nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi, dị Ka idei mmiri, oké ifufe, ebili mmiri nke ezuzo na oké mmiri ozuzo. Ọrụ ha na-arụ bụ "[na-amịkọrọ] akụkụ nke mmetụta ahụ ma si otú a [belata] mmetụta ya n'ala".[24] Ala mmiri (nke gụnyere mmiri nnu, mmiri mmiri na-atọ ụtọ, ...) na ahịhịa ọ na'okpuru ala na osisi, mgbọrọgwụ, wdg. Na-ejigide mmiri buru ibu (mmiri elu, snow, ruwan ozuzo, Mmiri dị n'ime ala) wee jiri nwayọọ nwayọọ wepụ ha azụ, na na -ebelata ohere nke idei mmiri.[25] Oké ọhịa mangrove na-echebe ụsọ mmiri site na mbuze mmiri ma ọ bụ mbufe mmiri; usoro a mụrụ mgbe oké ifufe nke 1999 dakwasịrị India. Obodo nta ndị e ji ọhịa mangrove gbaa gburugburu nwere obere mmebi karịa obodo nta nta ndi ozo nke mangroves na-echebe.[26]

Ọrụ inye ihe

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Ọrụ inye ihe na-agụnye "ngwaahịa niile e nwetara site na gburugburu ebe obibi".

Ngwaahịa ọhịa

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Oké ọhịa na-emepụta ụdị osisi dị ukwuu na ụdị dịgasị iche iche, gụnyere osisi gbara gburugburu, osisi a sawara, akụkụ, na osisi injinia, dịka, cross-laminated, yana pulp na akwụkwọ.[27] E wezụga mmepụta nke osisi, ọrụ ọhịa nwekwara ike ịkpata ngwaahịa ndị na-agafe obere nhazi, dị ka osisi ọkụ, icheku ọkụ na osisi gbara gburugburu eji n'ụdị a na'enweghị nhazi.[28] Mmepụta zuru ụwa ọnụ na ahia nke nnukwu ngwaahịa osisi niile dekọrọ uru ha kachasị elu na 2018.[29] Mmepụta, mbubata na mbupụ nke osisi gburugburu, osisi a kwụsịrị, akụkụ osisi, pulp osisi.[30][29] N'afọ 2018, uto na mmepụta nke ndị isi na-emepụta osisi sitere na otu pasent (ogwe osisi) ruo pasent ise (ụlọ ọrụ).[29] Uto kachasị ngwa ngwa mere na mpaghara Asia-Pacific, Northern America na Europe, ma eleghị anya n'ihi ọganihu akụ na ụba dị mma na ebe ndị a.[29]

Oké ọhịa na-enyekwa ngwaahịa ọhịa ndị na'abụghị osisi, gụnyere nri, ahịhịa na ọgwụ, na nri ọhịa.N'ụwa niile, ihe dị ka otu ijeri mmadụ na-adabere n'ụzọ ụfọdụ na nri ọhịa dịka anụ ọhịa, ụmụ ahụhụ a na'iri eri, ngwaahịa osisi a nụrụ eri eri na azụ, nke na - mgbe niile nwere ọkwa dị elu nke micronutrients.[30] Uru nke nri ọhịa dị ka ihe na-edozi ahụ anaghị ejedebe na mba ndị na'etiti na ndị dị ala; ihe karịrị nde mmadụ otu narị na European Union (EU) na -eri nri anụ ọhịa mgbe niile.[30] Ihe dị ka ijeri mmadụ 2.ụọnna nde anọ 'ime obodo na ime obodo jiri ike sitere na osisi maka isi nri.[30]

Ngwaahịa mmírí

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Usoro okike nke mmiri na-enye ndị mmadụ: nri mmiri nke ọhịa na nke a kụrụ akụ, mmiri dị ọcha, eriri na mmanụ na ihe onwunwe nke kemịkal na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa.[31]

Ụmụ mmadụ na-eri ọtụtụ ngwaahịa sitere n'oké osimiri, ma ọ bụ dị ka ngwaahịa na'ụzọ na na ya maọbụ maka iji ya na ngalaba ndị ọzọ: "Ihe karịrị otu ijeri mmadụ n"ụwa niile, ọ bụkwa otu ụzọ n "ụzọ isii nke ndị bi n-ụwa, dabere na azụ dị Ka isi iyi ha nke protein anụmanụ. N'afọ 2000, azụ azụ n'oké osimiri na n"ụsọ oké osimiri mejupụtara pasent iri na abụọ nke mmepụta nri ụwa.[32] Azụ na ihe ndị ọzọ a na-eri n'oké osimiri bụ azụ, azụ shellfish, roe na seaweeds bụ maka ndị bi n"ụsọ oké osimiri ihe bụ isi nke nri ọdịbendị, ụkpụrụ na omenala obodo. Ihe atụ dị oke mkpa ga-abụ sushi, nri mba nke Japan, nke nwere ọtụtụ ụdị azụ na ahịhịa mmiri dị iche iche.

Mmiri dị ọcha

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A na-akpọ akụkụ mmiri ndị na-etinyeghị oke na nnu dị ka ahụ 'mmiri ọhụrụ'. Mmiri dị ọcha nwere ike na-agafe n'ọdọ mmiri, osimiri na iyi, dịka ole na ole; mana a na-ahụ ya nke ọma na steeti oyi kpọnwụrụ ma ọ bụ dị ka mmiri ala ma ọ bụ lie ya n'ime ala. Mmiri dị ọcha abụghị naanị ihe dị mkpa maka ndụ mmadụ, kamakwa maka nlanarị nke ụdị anụmanụ niile dị adị, osisi.[33]

Ihe ndi eji emepụta ihe

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Ihe ndị e kere eke n'ime mmiri na-enye anyị ihe ndị dị mkpa maka imepụta uwe, ihe owuwu (lime e wepụtara na coral reefs), ihe ịchọ mma na ihe eji eme ihe (luffas, nka na ọla): "Akpụkpọ anụ na'oké osimiri maka uweojii, gas maka mmepụta ike, lime (nke e nwetara na Coral Reefes) maka iwu ụlọ, na osisi mangroves na oké ọhịa ndị ọzọ maka ebe mgbaba bụ ụfọdụ n" ndị a maara nke ihe dị n-ahụkarị nke mmiri. A na-ejikwa ihe ndị dị n'ime mmiri eme ihe maka ihe na'ụzọ na na ya, dị ka mkpokoro na coral n"ihe ịchọ mma.[32] Ụmụ mmadụ ekwuola maka usoro dị n'ime gburugburu mmiri maka mmepụta nke ike na-agbanwe agbanwe: iji ike nke ebili mmiri ma ọ bụ ike ebale mmiri dị ka isi iyi nke ume maka ike turbine, dịka ọmụmaatụ.[2] A na-eji oké osimiri na oké Osimiri eme ihe dị ka ebe maka mmanụ na gas na mmiri, ugbo ifufe n'ụsọ oké mmiri.[34]

Ihe onwunwe nke kemịkal na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa

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Akụrụngwa biochemical bụ ogige ndị a na-enweta site na ihe ndị dị n'ime mmiri maka iji ọgwụ, ọgwụ, ihe ịchọ mma, na ihe ndị ọzọ na-emepụta ihe ndị dị ndụ. Akụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa bụ ozi mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa dị n'ime ihe ndị dị n'ime mmiri nke a ga-emesị jiri mee ihe maka ịzụ ụmụ anụmanụ na ihe ọkụkụ na maka ọganihu nkà na ụzụ na mpaghara ndu. A na-ewepụta akụrụngwa ndị a ozugbo site n'anụ ahụ - dị ka mmanụ azụ dị ka isi iyi nke omega3 - ma ọ bụ jiri ya mee ihe atụ maka ngwaahịa mmadụ mere ọhụrụ: "dị ka iwu teknụzụ fiber optics dabere na njirimara nke sponges. ... Tụnyere ngwaahịa ụwa, ngwaahịa ndị sitere n'oké osimiri na-enwekarị mmetụta bioactive karị, ma eleghị anya n'ihi eziokwu ahụ bụ na ihe ndị dị ndụ n'oké osimiri aghaghị ịnọgide na-enwe ike ha n'agbanyeghị na a na-agbaze ya na mmiri oké osimiri gbara ya gburugburu.".[32]

Ọrụ ọdịnala

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Ọrụ ọdịnala na-emetụta ụwa na'enweghị ihe onwunwe, ebe ọ bụ na ha na - uru ntụrụndụ, ịma mma, nghọta na ọrụ ime mmụọ, nke a na na[35]

Ihe na-akpali akpali

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Ọtụtụ ndị ejirila gburugburu mmiri mee ihe dị ka ihe mkpali maka ọrụ nkà ha, egwu, ihe owuwu, omenala ... Ebe mmiri dị mkpa n'ụzọ ime mmụọ dịka ọtụtụ ndị na-ele ha anya dị ka ụzọ maka ịmaliteghachi na mgbanwe echiche. Ọtụtụ na-ewerekwa mmiri ahụ dị ka akụkụ nke àgwà ha, karịsịa ma ọ bụrụ na ha bi nso ya kemgbe ha bụ ụmụaka: ha na-ejikọta ya na ncheta obi ụtọ na ahụmahụ ndị gara aga. Ibi nso ozu mmiri ruo ogologo oge na-ebute ụfọdụ ihe omume mmiri na-aghọ ememe na ndụ ndị mmadụ na nke omenala na mpaghara.[36]

Ntụrụndụ na njem nleta

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Egwuregwu mmiri na-ewu ewu n'etiti ndị bi n"ụsọ oké osimiri: ịnya ụgbọ mmiri, ịkwọ ụgbọ ala, ikiri whale, ịgba kayak, ịkụ azụ ntụrụndụ ... ọtụtụ ndị njem nleta na'ebe ezumike dị nso nʼoké osimiri ma ọ bụ osimiri iji nwee ike ịnwale ihe omume ndị a, ma zuo ike n'"akụkụ mmiri.[37] United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 nwekwara ebumnuche iji bulie ojiji nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi maka njem nleta na-adịgide adịgide karịsịa na Small Island Developing States.[38]

 
Ụsọ mmiri dị n'ebe ntụrụndụ.

Sayensị na agụmakwụkwọ

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Enwere ike ịmụta ọtụtụ ihe site na usoro mmiri, gburugburu na ihe ndị dị ndụ - nke enwere ike itinye n'ọrụ n'ime omume anyị kwa ụbọchị na n'ime ngalaba sayensị. Ọ bụ ezie na a ka mara ọtụtụ ihe banyere ụwa oké osimiri: "site n'ụzọ pụrụ iche na mgbagwoju anya nke gburugburu mmiri na otú o si emetụta ya site na nnukwu akpịrịkpa mbara igwe, oge nkwụsị oge, na mmetụta nchịkọta.[24]

Ọrụ nkwado

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Ọrụ nkwado bụ ọrụ ndị na-enye ohere maka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi ndị ọzọ ka ha nọrọ. Ha nwere mmetụta na-apụtaghị ìhè na ụmụ mmadụ nke na'ime ogologo oge. Enwere ike iwere ọtụtụ ọrụ dị ka ndị na-akwado ọrụ na nhazi / ọdịbendị / ọrụ inye.[39]

Njem nke ihe oriri

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Nchịkọta nri bụ mmegharị nke ihe oriri site na gburugburu ebe obibi site n'usoro ndụ na abiotic.[40] Oké osimiri bụ nnukwu ọdọ mmiri nchekwa maka ihe ndị a na-edozi ahụ, dị ka carbon, nitrogen na phosphorus. Ihe ndị na-edozi ahụ na'ime ihe ndị dị n'ụgbọ mmiri na na - na: ihe na A na-emegharị ihe oriri site na ndụ nke ihe ndị dị ndụ ka ha na'ọnwụ ma na na -ere ure, na "Ọrụ nke usoro nri na-edozi ahụ na'ikpeazụ na - emetụta ọrụ ndị ọzọ niile dị ndụ dịka ihe niile na ya chọrọ ihe na na ahụ mgbe niile iji dịrị ndụ".[24]

Ebe obibi ndị a na-ahụ maka ihe ndị dị ndụ

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A na-akọwa ebe obibi ndị a na'etiti ihe ndị dị ndụ dị ka ebe ndị ihe dị n'ime mmiri na ndị ọzọ.[41] Ọ dịghị mkpa ka ndị a gbanwee naanị maka ebumnuche nke ije ozi dị ka ebe obibi, mana ha na-aghọ ebe ndụ ka ha nọ na'okike. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, coral reefs na mangrove forests bụ ebe obibi nke ọtụtụ ụdị azụ, seaweed na shellfish... Mkpa ebe obibi ndị a bụ na ha na-enye ohere maka mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ụdị dị iche iche, na'inyere aka n"inye ngwaahịa na ọrụ ụgbọ mmiri. Ha dịkwa ezigbo mkpa maka uto n'oge mmalite nke ụdị mmiri (ịzụlite na oghere bursary), ebe ha na-eje ozi dị ka isi nri na dị iche iche pụọ na ndị na'anya.[42]

 
Coral na ihe ndị ọzọ dị ndụ na-eje ozi dị ka ebe obibi maka ọtụtụ ụdị mmiri.

Mmepụta mbụ

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Mmepụta mbụ na-ezo aka na mmepụta nke ihe ndị dị ndụ, ya bụ, ike a na'ime kemịkal, site na usoro ndị dịka photosynthesis na chemosynchesis. Ihe ndị sitere n'okike nke ndị na-emepụta ihe bụ isi na ya bụ ihe ndabere nke eriri nri niile. Ọzọkwa, ọ na-emepụta oxygen (O2), molekụl dị mkpa iji kwado ụmụ anụmanụ na ụmụ mmadụ.[43][44][45][46] Na nkezi, mmadụ na-eri ihe dị ka lita 550 nke oxygen kwa ụbọchị, ebe osisi na'emepụta lita 1.5 nke ikuku oxygen na gram 10 nke uto.

Ọnọdụ akụ na ụba

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Ọdọ mmiri na-adịgide adịgide n'obodo ukwu dị nso n"ụlọ na Scotland. Nchịkọta na nhicha nke mmiri na mmiri mkpofu site na ahịhịa okike bụ ụdị ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi.

Enwere ajụjụ gbasara ụkpụrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na akụ na ụba nke ọrụ gburugburu ụwa.[47] Ụfọdụ ndị mmadụ nwere ike ọ gaghị ama banyere gburugburu ebe obibi n'ozuzu ya na njikọ mmadụ na gburugburu ihe okike, nke nwere anya kpatara echiche na-ezighi ezi. Ọ bụ ezie na mmata banyere gburugburu ebe obibi na-akawanye mma n'ụwa anyị nke oge a, a ka na'aghọtaghị isi obodo gburugburu ụlọ na ọwa ya, egwu na na - na, anyị na[48] Ọtụtụ mgbalị iji mee ka ndị na-eme mkpebi mara banyere ihe na uru dị ugbu a na ọdịnihu ugbu nga gụnyere ịhazi na ịsụgharị ihe ọmụma sayensị na akụ na ụba, nke na'akọwapụta nsonaazụ nke nhọrọ anyị na mpaghara mmetụta yiri ya na ahụike mmadụ.[49] Otu akụkụ siri ike nke usoro a bụ na ịkọwa ozi gburugburu ebe obibi anakọtara site n'otu oge-oge apụtaghị na enwere ike itinye ya n"ọrụ na nke ọzọ; ịghọta usoro gburugburu ụlọ ọrụ gburugburu ihe dị mkpa nʼinyere mkpebi akụ na ụba aka.[50] Ihe ndị na-atụle ihe dị ka enweghị ike dochie anya ọrụ ma ọ bụ ọrụ ndị a na'ime ya nwekwara ike ịnye uru akụ na ụba nke mere na iru ihe mgbaru ọsọ ga-akawanye mma.

Ọnụ ọgụgụ akụ na ụba nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na-agụnyekwa nkwurịta okwu na ozi mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, ebe ndị ka na na'ihe ịma aka ma bụrụ ihe ọtụtụ ndị na - nchọpụta na ya na.[51] N'ozuzu, echiche ahụ bụ na ọ bụ ezie na ndị mmadụ na-eme mkpebi maka ihe ọ bụla dịgasị iche iche, ọnọdụ na'ihi na ha na na - na: Ụzọ isii dị mkpa maka ịba uru maka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n'okwu ego bụ:[52]

  • Ọnụahịa a na-ezere: Ọrụ na-enye ọha mmadụ ohere izere ụgwọ a gaara enweta na enweghị ọrụ ndị ahụ (dịka ọgwụgwọ mkpofu site na ebe obibi mmiri na'ezere ego ahụike)
  • Ọnụ ego mgbanwe: Enwere ike iji usoro mmadụ dochie ọrụ (dịka mweghachi nke Catskill Watershed na-efu ihe na'okpuru iwu ụlọ ọrụ nhicha mmiri).
  • Ihe na-enweta ego: Ọrụ na'enye maka mmụba nke ego a na ya (dịka, mma mmiri na na - na
  • Ọnụ ego njem: Ọrụ chọrọ nwere ike ịchọ njem, nke ọnụahịa ya nwere ikike igosipụta uru nke ọrụ ahụ (dịka uru ahụmịhe njem gburugburu ebe obibi bụ ma ọ dịkarịa ala ihe onye nleta dị njikere ịkwụ ụgwọ iji ruo ebe ahụ)
  • Ọnụahịa Hedonic: Enwere ike igosipụta ọchịchọ ọrụ na ọnụahịa ndị mmadụ ga-akwụ maka ngwaahịa ndị metụtara ya (dịka ọnụ ahịa ụlọ ndị dị n'ụsọ oké osimiri karịrị nke ụlọ dị na ime obodo).
  • Ọnụahịa ndị ọzọ: Enwere ike ịkpata arịrịọ maka ọrụ site n'ịtọpụta ihe ndị a na-eche n"echiche nke na'etiti ụfọdụ ọnụahịa nke ihe ọzọ (dịka ndị ọbịa dị njikere ịkwụ ụgwọ maka ohere dị ukwuu na ogige ntụrụndụ mba).

Nnyocha ndị ọgbọ nyochara nke e bipụtara na 1997 mere atụmatụ na uru nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi ụwa na isi obodo sitere n'okike dị n"etiti puku ijeri dọla ịrị na isii na ịrị ise na anọ kwa afọ, na nkezi nke puku nde dọla ịrị atọ na atọ kwa afọ.[53] Otú ọ dị, Salles (2011) gosipụtara 'Ngụkọta uru nke ụdị dị iche iche enweghị njedebe, yabụ inwe arụmụka banyere ihe bụ ngụcha uru okike bụ n'ezie ihe na-enweghị isi n"ihi na anyị enweghị ike ibi ndụ na ya'.[54]

Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 2012, ọtụtụ ụlọ ọrụ amaghị nke ọma banyere oke ịdabere na ha na mmetụta ha nwere na gburugburu ebe obibi na ihe ndị nwere ike ịpụta. N'otu aka ahụ, usoro nchịkwa gburugburu ebe obibi na ngwaọrụ nchedo gburugburuebe obibi dị mma iji dozie nsogbu "ọdịnala" nke mmetọ na ojiji nke ihe onwunwe. Ọtụtụ na-elekwasị anya na mmetụta gburugburu ebe obibi, ọ bụghị ịdabere. Ọtụtụ ngwaọrụ na usoro nwere ike inyere uru nke ngalaba onwe aka ma nyochaa ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi anyị, gụnyere 2008 Corporate Ecosystem Services Review, Artificial Intelligence for Environment & Sustainability (ARIES) oru ngo site na 2007, Natural Value Initiative (2012) na InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecoystem Service & Tradeoffs, 2012)[55][56][57][58]

Ụgwọ a na-akwụ

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Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES)

Ịkwụ ụgwọ maka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi nke a maara dịka Payment for Ecosystem service (PES), nke a makwaara dị ka ịkwụ ụgwọ maka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi (ma ọ bụ uru), bụ ihe mkpali enyere ndị ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ ndị nwe ala n'ọnọdụ maka ijikwa ala ha iji nye ụfọdụ ụdị ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi. A kọwawo ha dị ka "usoro doro anya maka inyekwu ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi site na ịkwụ ụgwọ ndị na-enye afọ ofufo."[59] Mmemme ndị a na-akwalite ichekwa akụ ndị sitere n'okike n'ahịa.

Ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi enweghị nkọwa ahaziri ahazi mana enwere ike ịkpọ ya "uru nke okike na ezinụlọ, obodo na akụ na ụba"[60] ma ọ bụ, karịa, "ihe ọma ndị okike na-eme."[61] Achọpụtara ma tụleba ọrụ sistemụ gburugburu ebe obibi iri abụọ na anọ site na nyocha Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, akụkọ UN kwadoro na 2005 nke e mere iji nyochaa ọnọdụ gburugburu ụwa nke ụwa. Akụkọ ahụ kọwapụtara ụdị ọrụ dị iche iche nke gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka mmepụta nri (n'ụdị ihe ọkụkụ, anụ ụlọ, ijide azụ, aquaculture na nri anụ ọhịa), eriri (n'ụdị osisi, owu, hemp na silk), akụrụngwa mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa (biochemicals, ọgwụ eke, na ọgwụ), mmiri dị ọcha, ụkpụrụ ikuku, ụkpụrụ ihu igwe, iwu mmiri, iwu mbuze, nchacha mmiri na ọgwụgwọ mkpofu, iwu ọrịa, iwu pesti, pollination, ụkpụrụ ihe egwu eke, na ọrụ ọdịnala (gụnyere ime mmụọ, ụkpụrụ okpukperechi, na ihe ịchọ mma, ntụrụndụ na ebe obibi).[62] N'ụzọ doro anya, Otú ọ dị, e nwere "nnukwu atọ" n'etiti ọrụ 24 ndị a na-anata ego na mmasị ugbu a n'ụwa nile. Ndị a bụ mbelata mgbanwe ihu igwe, ọrụ mmiri mmiri na ichekwa ihe dị iche iche dị ndụ, a na-atụkwa anya na ọchịchọ maka ọrụ ndị a karịsịa ka ọ ga-aga n'ihu na-eto eto ka oge na-aga.[63] Otu isiokwu akwụkwọ akụkọ Nature nke afọ 1997 mere atụmatụ uru kwa afọ nke uru gburugburu ebe obibi zuru ụwa ọnụ na $33 trillion, ọnụ ọgụgụ ahụ fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ okpukpu abụọ nke nnukwu ngwaahịa zuru ụwa ọnụ n'oge ahụ.[64] Na 2014, onye dere nyocha 1997 a (Robert Costanza) na otu ndị na-edekọ akwụkwọ tozuru etozu weghachiri nyocha a - na-eji naanị usoro gbanwere ntakịrị mana yana nkọwa zuru ezu nke 2011 data - wee mụbaa mkpokọta ọrụ nchekwa gburugburu ụwa na-enye atụmatụ. $125–145 trillion kwa afọ. Otu ọrụ nyocha ahụ mekwara atụmatụ n'etiti $4.3 na trillion 20.2 kwa afọ nke mfu maka ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi, n'ihi mgbanwe eji eji ala eme ihe.[65]

A tụlekwara PES dị ka ngwá ọrụ maka mmepe ime obodo. Na 2007, World Bank wepụtara akwụkwọ na-akọwa ebe PES na mmepe.[66] Mana njikọ dị n'etiti gburugburu ebe obibi na mmepe ka amatala n'ihu ọha ogologo oge tupu ya na Nzukọ 1972 Stockholm na gburugburu ebe obibi mmadụ wee mechaa kwughachi ya site na Rio Conference on Environment and Development.[67][68] N'agbanyeghị, ọ dị mkpa iburu n'uche na anaghị emepụta mmemme PES ka ọ bụrụ atụmatụ ibelata ịda ogbenye, n'agbanyeghị na ha nwere ike itinye usoro mmepe.[66][69]

Ụfọdụ ememe PES gụnyere nkwekọrịta n'etiti ndị na-azụ ahịa ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na ndị na-eweta ọrụ ndị a. N'agbanyeghị, ọtụtụ n'ime mmemme PES bụ ndị gọọmentị na-akwado ma na-etinye aka n'etiti, dị ka otu ndị na-abụghị gọọmentị. Ndị otu na-enye ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na-ejide ikike ihe onwunwe karịa mma gburugburu ebe obibi nke na-enye ndị na-achọ ihe nkwụghachi ụgwọ. N'ihe gbasara nkwekọrịta nke onwe, ndị na-erite uru na ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi dị njikere ịkwụ ụgwọ nke a pụrụ ịtụ anya na ọ ga-adị ala karịa uru ọdịmma ha n'ihi ọrụ ndị ahụ. Enwere ike ịtụ anya na ndị na-enye ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi dị njikere ịnakwere ugwo nke karịrị ọnụ ahịa ịnye ọrụ ahụ.

Nchịkwa na iwu

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Ọ bụ ezie na ọnụahịa ego na-aga n'ihu n"ihe gbasara ọnụ ahịa nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi, ihe ịma aka na mmejuputa iwu na njikwa dị ịrịba ama ma dị ukwuu. Nchịkwa nke ihe onwunwe ndị a na-ahụkarị abụwo isiokwu nke ịchụso agụmakwụkwọ sara mbara.[70][71][72][73] Site n'ịkọwa nsogbu na ịchọta ngwọta ndị a pụrụ itinye n"ọrụ nʼụzọ bara uru na nke na-adịgide adịgide, enwere ọtụtụ ihe ị ga-emeri. N'ịtụle nhọrọ ga-ejikọta mkpa mmadụ dị ugbu a na nke gafere n'ọdịnihu, ndị na-eme mkpebi ga na'ọrụ ugboro ugboro site na ozi ziri ezi ma ezughi oke. A na-elekarị iwu ndị dị ugbu a anya dị ka ndị na'ezughị ezu ebe ọ bụ na ha na ndị metụtara ụkpụrụ ahụike mmadụ nke na na ya na ụzọ dị mkpa iji chebe ahụ ike na ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi. N'afọ 2000, iji melite ozi dịnụ, a tụwo aro mmejuputa usoro ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi (ESF), nke na-ejikọta akụkụ nke biophysical na nke mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya nke ichebe gburugburu ma mee ya iji duzie ụlọ ọrụ site na ozi na okwu dị iche iche, na'inyere aka iduzi nhọrọ atụmatụ.[74]

Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 2005, a na'ewere mbọ nchịkwa mpaghara na mpaghara dị ka ọrụ dị iche iche dị mma maka ọrụ dịka mmịpụta ihe ọkụkụ ma ọ bụ ihe onwunwe dị egwu dị na mmiri.[12] Ụzọ ọzọ nke na-ewu ewu n'oge afọ 1990 bụ ahịa nke nchedo ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi. Ịkwụ ụgwọ na ịzụ ahịa nke ọrụ bụ ihe ngwọta na-apụta n'ụwa niile ebe mmadụ nwere ike inweta ego maka ọrụ dịka ịkwado nchedo nke isi mmalite carbon ma ọ bụ iweghachi ndị na'ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi. N'ọnọdụ ụfọdụ, e guzobere ụlọ akụ maka ijikwa ego dị otú ahụ na ụlọ ọrụ nchekwa emeela ka ọha na eze mara na mgbanwe ngwaahịa, na-akọwa njikọ na mgbalị akụ na ụba na ohere maka ịmekọrịta na nghọta mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya.[49] Otú ọ dị, ihe dị mkpa maka mmejuputa iwu bụ ikike ala akọwapụtara nke ọma, nke na-adịghịkarị n'ọtụtụ mba na - emepe. Karịsịa, ọtụtụ mba ndị na-emepe emepe nke nwere oke ọhịa na ndị a na'egbubi ọhịa nwere esemokwu n'etiti ndị dị iche iche na mpaghara ọhịa.[75] Na mgbakwunye, nchegbu maka azụmahịa zuru ụwa ọnụ dị otú ahụ gụnyere ịkwụ ụgwọ na-ekwekọghị ekwekọrịta maka ọrụ ma ọ bụ ihe onwunwe a chụrụ n'àjà n"ebe ndị ọzọ na akwụkwọ ikike na'ụzọ na na -ezighi ezi maka iji ya eme ihe nʼụzọ rụrụ arụ. Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 2001, ụzọ ọzọ lekwasịrị anya n"ichebe ebe ndị dị iche iche dị ndụ. Nkwado na nchekwa nke ọtụtụ ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na-agbaso ebumnuche nchedo ọdịnala (ya bụ, ụdị dị iche iche) emeela ka a tụọ aro njikọta nke ebumnarị iji bulie ihe ịga nke ọma ha. Nke a nwere ike ịbụ atụmatụ karịsịa mgbe ị na-eji netwọk ndị na'ọrụ na - na: ọ na na[76][77]

Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ka ọ na-erule afọ 2013, enwere mmasị na ọnụahịa nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi nke mmepụta na mweghachi shellfish nyere.[78] Ụdị isi ihe, dị ala na usoro nri, azụ shellfish bivalve dị ka oysters na-akwado obodo dị mgbagwoju anya nke ụdị site na ịrụ ọtụtụ ọrụ dị mkpa maka ụdị dị iche iche gbara ha gburugburu. A na-enwekwu nkwenye na ụfọdụ ụdị azụ shellfish nwere ike imetụta ma ọ bụ chịkwaa ọtụtụ usoro gburugburu ebe obibi; nke ukwuu nke na a na'ime ha na ndepụta nke "ndị injinia gburugburu ihe ndị dị ndụ" nke gbanwere gburugburu ha n'ụzọ anụ ahụ, nke ndụ maọbụ nke kemịkal na gburugburu n"ụzọ na - na[79] Ọtụtụ n'ime ọrụ na usoro gburugburu ebe obibi nke shellfish rụrụ ma ọ bụ metụtara na-enye aka na ọdịmma mmadụ site n"inye ọtụtụ ọrụ gburugburu ụlọ ọrụ bara uru ka oge na'ịgbanye ihe ndị dị nro na ihe nwere ike ibelata nsogbu mmiri site na ịchịkwa ihe oriri karịrị akarị na mmiri. Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 2018, emeghị ka echiche nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi n"ụzọ kwesịrị ekwesị n "n'ime iwu mba ụwa na mpaghara".[80]

N'agbanyeghị nke ahụ, United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 nwere ebumnuche iji hụ na nchekwa, mweghachi, na ojiji na-adịgide adịgide nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi.[81]

Mgbanwe nke gburugburu ebe obibi (EbA)

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Mgbanwe nke gburugburu ebe obibi ma ọ bụ EbA bụ atụmatụ maka mmepe obodo na njikwa gburugburu Ebe obibi nke na-achọ iji usoro ọrụ gburugburu ụlọ iji nyere obodo aka ime mgbanwe ihu igwe. Nkwekọrịta na Biological Diversity na-akọwa ya dị ka "iji ụdị dị iche iche na ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi enyere ndị mmadụ aka ime mgbanwe maka mmetụta ọjọọ nke mgbanwe ihu igwe", nke gụnyere iji "nchịkwa na'ụzọ na na ya, nchekwa na mweghachi nke gburugburu ụlọ, dịka akụkụ nke usoro mgbanwe zuru oke nke na - na a na[82]

N'afọ 2001, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment kwupụtara na mmetụta ụmụ mmadụ na ụwa okike na-abawanye na ọkwa a na'ahụtụbeghị mbụ, nakwa na mmebi nke gburugburu ebe obibi nke mbara ala ga-aghọ nnukwu ihe mgbochi iji mezuo Millenniam Development Goals. N'ịghọta eziokwu a, Ecosystem-Based Adaptation chọrọ iji mweghachi nke gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka ihe na-agafe agafe iji melite ogo ndụ na obodo ndị na'inwe mmetụta nke mgbanwe ihu igwe. N'ụzọ doro anya, ọ gụnyere iweghachi usoro okike dị otú ahụ nke na-enye nri na mmiri na nchebe pụọ na oké ifufe na idei mmiri. Ntinye aka EbA jikọtara ihe ndị dị na mbelata mgbanwe ihu igwe na ime mgbanwe maka okpomọkụ ụwa iji nyere aka dozie mkpa obodo ugbu a na nke ọdịnihu.[83]

Atụmatụ mmekorita n'etiti ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị, ndị na-eme iwu, na ndị otu obodo bụ ihe dị mkpa nke Ecosystem-Based Adaptation. Site n'iji nka nke ndị ọkachamara na-abụghị ndị ọrụ na ndị bi n"ógbè ahụ mee ihe, EbA na'ịchọ ịmepụta ngwọta pụrụ iche maka nsogbu pụrụ nnọọ, kama imepụtaghachi ọrụ ndị gara aga.[82]

Mkpebi mgbanwe nke iji ala eme ihe

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Mkpebi ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi chọrọ ime nhọrọ dị mgbagwoju anya na njikọ nke gburugburu ụlọ ọrụ, teknụzụ, ọha mmadụ, na akụ na ụba. Usoro nke ime mkpebi ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi ga-atụle mmekọrịta nke ọtụtụ ụdị ozi, sọpụrụ echiche niile nke ndị metụtara, gụnyere ụlọ ọrụ na-achịkwa, ndị na'akwado atụmatụ, Ndị na -eme mkpebi, ụmụ amaala, NGO, ma tụọ mmetụta na akụkụ anọ niile dị na nkwonkwo. Mkpebi ndị a na-abụkarị nke oghere, mgbe niile nwere ọtụtụ ebumnuche, ma dabere na data a maghị ama, ụdị, na atụmatụ. Ọtụtụ mgbe ọ bụ njikọta nke sayensị kachasị mma jikọtara ya na ụkpụrụ ndị metụtara ya, atụmatụ na echiche ndị na-akpali usoro ahụ.[84]

Otu nnyocha nyocha gosipụtara ndị metụtara dị ka ndị ọrụ iji kwado mkpebi nchịkwa mmiri na Middle Rio Grande basin nke New Mexico. Nnyocha a lekwasịrị anya n'ịmepụta ntinye nke ndị metụtara ya gafee mkpebi mpaghara, mana leghaara ejighị n"aka anya.[85] Nnyocha ọzọ jiri usoro Monte Carlo mee ihe iji mee ka usoro econometric nke mkpebi ndị nwe ala na nyocha nke mmetụta nke mgbanwe ala. N'ebe a, a na-emepụta ntinye nke ndị metụtara dị ka mmetụta mberede iji gosipụta ejighị n'aka.[86] Nnyocha nke atọ jiri usoro nkwado mkpebi Bayesian mee ihe iji gosipụta ejighị n'aka na ozi sayensị Bayes Nets na iji nyere aka ịnakọta na ịgwakọta ntinye sitere n"aka ndị metụtara ya. Nnyocha a bụ maka itinye ngwaọrụ ike ebili mmiri n'ụsọ oké osimiri Oregon, mana ọ na-enye usoro zuru oke maka ijikwa sayensị na ihe ọmụma ndị metụtara ya na gburugburu ebe obibi mkpebi.[87] Enwere ike iji data na nyocha dịpụrụ adịpụ nyochaa ahụike na oke nke klas mkpuchi ala nke na-enye ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi, nke yana enyemaka na atụmatụ, njikwa, nlekota omume ndị metụtara, na nkwurịta okwu n'etiti ndị nwere mmasị.[88]

Mgbanwe nke gburugburu ebe obibi (EbA)

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Mgbanwe nke gburugburu ebe obibi ma ọ bụ EbA bụ atụmatụ maka mmepe obodo na njikwa gburugburu Ebe obibi nke na-achọ iji usoro ọrụ gburugburu ụlọ iji nyere obodo aka ime mgbanwe ihu igwe. Nkwekọrịta na Biological Diversity na-akọwa ya dị ka "iji ụdị dị iche iche na ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi enyere ndị mmadụ aka ime mgbanwe maka mmetụta ọjọọ nke mgbanwe ihu igwe", nke gụnyere iji "nchịkwa na'ụzọ na na ya, nchekwa na mweghachi nke gburugburu ụlọ, dịka akụkụ nke usoro mgbanwe zuru oke nke na - na a navince, Vietnam|journal=Ecosystem Services|date=August 2015|volume=14|pages=67–75|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.04.007}}</ref>

Na mba Baltic, ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị, Ndị na-echekwa ihe okike na ndị ọchịchị mpaghara na'ime usoro atụmatụ jikọtara ọnụ maka usoro okpomọkụ ala ahịhịa.[89] Ha na-emepe ngwá ọrụ atụmatụ jikọtara ọnụ dabere na teknụzụ GIS (usoro ozi ala) ma tinye ya n'ịntanetị nke ga-enyere ndị na'ịhazi aka ịhọrọ ihe ngwọta kachasị mma maka ala ahịhịa. Ọ ga-eleba anya n'ụzọ zuru ezu na usoro dị n"ime ime obodo ma nyere aka ịchọta ngwọta nchịkwa ahịhịa kachasị mma site nʼịtụle ihe okike na nke mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya nke otu saịtị ahụ.[90]

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Ọ bụ ezie na echiche nke ịdabere na gburugburu ebe obibi nke ụwa ruru mmalite nke ịdị adị nke Homo sapiens, okwu ahụ bụ 'isi obodo okike' bụ nke mbụ E. F. Schumacher chepụtara na 1973 n'akwụkwọ ya Small is Beautiful .[91] Nkwado nke otu usoro okike nwere ike isi nye ụmụ mmadụ ọrụ dị mgbagwoju anya laghachiri ma ọ dịkarịa ala na Plato (ihe dị ka 400 BC) onye ghọtara na mgbukpọ ọhịa nwere ikike iduga na mbuze ala yana ịcha isi iyi.[92][93] Echiche nke oge a nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi nwere ike ịmalite mgbe Marsh mara na 1864 echiche ahụ bụ na akụ na ụba ụwa enweghị njedebe site n'ịkọwa mgbanwe na ala na-eme nri na Mediterenian. Ọ bụghị ruo na ngwụcha afọ 1940 ka ndị edemede atọ bụ Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr, William Vogt, na Aldo Leopold[94] kwalitere mmata nke ịdabere na gburugburu.[95][96][97]

N'afọ 1956, Paul Sears dọtara uche na ọrụ dị oke mkpa nke gburugburu ebe obibi na nhazi ihe mkpofu na imegharị ihe oriri.[98] N'afọ 1970, Paul Ehrlich na Rosa Weigert lekwasịrị anya na "usoro gburugburu ebe obibi" n'akwụkwọ nkuzi sayensị gburugburu ha na ""ihe egwu kachasị aghụghọ na nke dị ize ndụ maka ịdị adị mmadụ ... mbibi nwere ike ime, site na ọrụ mmadụ n"onwe ya, nke usoro gburugburu ụlọ nke ịdị ndụ nke ụdị mmadụ dabere na ya".[99]

E webatara okwu ahụ bụ "ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi" na akụkọ 1970 nke Study of Critical Environmental Problems, nke depụtara ọrụ gụnyere mmịpụta ụmụ ahụhụ, ịkụ azụ, nchịkwa ihu igwe na nchịcha idei mmiri.[100] N'ime afọ ndị sochirinụ, e ji okwu ahụ dị iche iche mee ihe, mana n'ikpeazụ 'ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi' ghọrọ ọkọlọtọ na akwụkwọ sayensị.[101]

Echiche ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi anọgidewo na-agbasawanye ma na'etiti ebumnuche mmekọrịta ọha na eze na akụ na ụba na nchedo, nke a na -atụle n'okpuru ebe a. Akụkọ ihe mere eme nke echiche na okwu nke ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi site na 1997, enwere ike ịchọta ya n'akwụkwọ Daily "Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems".[92]

Ọ bụ ezie na nkọwa mbụ nke Gretchen Daily mere ka ọdịiche dị n'etiti ngwaahịa gburugburu ebe obibi na ọrụ gburugburuebe obibi, Robert Costanza na ndị ọrụ ibe ya mechara rụọ ọrụ na nke Millennium Ecosystem Assessment jikọtara ihe ndị a niile dị ka ọrụ ecosystem.[102][49]

Ọmụmaatụ

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Ihe atụ ndị na-esonụ na'ihe atụ na - mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ụmụ mmadụ na gburugburu ebe obibi site na ọrụ ndị sitere na ha:

  • Ndị agha US akwadowo nyocha site na Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, nke na-azọrọ na ala nke Ngalaba Nchebe na ntinye ndị agha na na'ime obodo na - na: uru maka nchekwa carbon, ike ịnagide ihu igwe, na ebe obibi nke ụdị dị n'ihe ize ndụ.[103][104] Ka ọ na-erule 2020, nyocha sitere na Mahadum Duke na'ihi na Eglin Air Force Base na na - ihe dịka $ 110 nde na ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi kwa afọ, $ 40 nde karịa ma ọ bụrụ na enweghị isi.[104]
  • Na New York City, ebe ogo mmiri ọṅụṅụ dara n'okpuru ụkpụrụ nke US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) chọrọ, ndị ọchịchị họọrọ iweghachi Catskill Watershed emetọ nke nyere obodo ahụ ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi nke ịdị ọcha mmiri. Ozugbo e belatara ntinye nke nsị na ọgwụ ahụhụ na mpaghara mmiri ahụ, usoro abiotic sitere n'okike dị ka ịmịkọrọ ala na nzacha nke kemịkal, yana mmegharị nke ihe ndị dị ndụ site na usoro mgbọrọgwụ na microorganisms ala, ogo mmiri ka mma ruo n"ọkwa nke mezuru ụkpụrụ gọọmentị. E mere atụmatụ na ego a na-etinye ego n'ụmụ amaala bụ ijeri $ 1.5, nke dị nnọọ iche na ihe e mere na ọ ga-efu ijere $ 6 iji wuo ụlọ ọrụ nzacha mmiri tinyere nde $ 300 kwa afọ.[105]
  • A na-achọ ka aṅụ na ya na ihe ọkụkụ na 15 na 30% nke mmepụta nri US; ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ugbo buru ibu na'èzí a na a mụrụ a iji nye ọrụ a. Nnyocha e mere n'afọ 2005 kọrọ na mpaghara ọrụ ugbo nke California, a chọpụtara na aṅụ ọhịa naanị nwere ike inye ọrụ mmịpụta ntụ ọka ma ọ bụ zuru ezu maọbụ melite ọrụ ndị a na-enye site na mmekọrịta omume.[12] Otú ọ dị, usoro ọrụ ugbo siri ike nwere ike imebi ọrụ mmịpụta mkpụrụ osisi ngwa ngwa site na ọnwụ nke ụdị. Ụdị ndị fọdụrụnụ enweghị ike ịkwụ ụgwọ nke a. Nsonaazụ nke nnyocha a na-egosikwa na ọnụ ọgụgụ nke chaparral na osisi oak ebe obibi maka aṅụ ọhịa n'ime 1 02 kilomita nke ugbo nwere ike ime ka ọ kwụsie ike ma melite ọrụ pollination. Ọnụnọ nke ihe ndị dị otú ahụ na gburugburu ebe obibi na-arụ ọrụ dịka iwu mkpuchi maka ndị ọrụ ugbo.
  • N'ime mmiri nke Osimiri Yangtze na China, e mepụtara ihe nlereanya maka mmiri na-agafe n'ọhịa dị iche iche iji chọpụta onyinye maka ike eletrik mmiri n"ógbè ahụ. Site n'ịtụle uru dị iche iche nke usoro gburugburu ebe obibi (ihe ọkụkụ-ala-ndagwurugwu mgbagwoju anya), ndị na-eme nchọpụta nwere ike ịtụle abamuru akụ na ụba kwa afọ nke idebe ọhịa na mmiri maka ọrụ ike ka ọ bụrụ okpukpu 2.2 nke a ma ọ bụ na a na'ewepụta ya otu ugboro maka osisi.[106]
  • N'afọ 1980, ụlọ ọrụ mmiri mineral Vittel (nke bụzi ụdị Nestlé Waters) chere nsogbu na nitrate na pesticides na-abanye na isi iyi ụlọ ahụ n'ebe ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ France ihu. Ndị ọrụ ugbo nọ n'ógbè ahụ emeela ka ọrụ ọrụ ubi sie ike ma kpochapụ ahịhịa ndị dị n"ọ́ ndị e si nʼala na-asa mmiri tupu ọ banye n "aquer" nke Vittel ji mee ihe. Mmetọ a yiri ikike ụlọ ọrụ ahụ nwere iji akara "mmiri mineral" n'okpuru iwu France egwu.[107] N'ịzaghachi ihe ize ndụ azụmaahịa a, Vittel mepụtara ngwugwu nkwalite maka ndị ọrụ ugbo iji melite ọrụ ọrụ ha ma si otú a belata mmetọ mmiri nke metụtara ngwaahịa V Mittel. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Vittel nyere ndị ọrụ ugbo enyemaka na enyemaka teknụzụ n'efu iji gbanwere nkwekọrịta ndị ugpo iji bulie njikwa ahịhịa, ebe ndị a na-etinye osisi, ma belata ojiji nke agrochemicals, ihe atụ nke ịkwụ ụgwọ maka mmemme ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi.[108]
  • N'afọ 2016, a gụrụ ya na ịkụ osisi ọhụrụ dị hekta 15,000 na UK, na-atụle naanị uru osisi, ọ ga-efu £ 79,000 000, nke karịrị uru nke £ 65,000 000. Otú ọ dị, ọ bụrụ na, uru ndị ọzọ niile osisi ndị dị n'ala dị ala nwere ike inye (dị ka nkwụsi ike ala, ntụrụndụ, mmepụta nri, ịdị ọcha ikuku, nchekwa carbon, ebe obibi anụ ọhịa, imepụta mmanụ, ịjụ oyi, mgbochi idei mmiri) gụnyere, ọnụahịa ahụ ga-abawanye n"ihi iwepụ ala ugbo bara uru (ga-abụ ihe dị ka £ 231 000 000) mana ọ gafere oke ibu site na uru nke £ 546 000.
  • Na Europe, a na-etinye ọrụ dị iche iche n'ọrụ iji kọwaa ụkpụrụ nke usoro okike na itinye echiche a n"ọrụ n "usoro mkpebi". Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ọrụ "LIFE Viva grass" na-ezube ime nke a na ala ahịhịa na Baltic.[109] 

Edensibia

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Tunza Eco-generation Eco-generation.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Austin (2009). "Estimating Ecosystem Services in Southern Ontario". 
  3. ↑ Barbier (May 2011). "The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services". Ecological Monographs 81 (2): 169–193. DOI:10.1890/10-1510.1. 
  4. ↑ Basic Biology (2016). Wetlands.
  5. ↑ Walter V. Reid, H. A. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being - A Report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Washington DC: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Board. Retrieved from http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.356.aspx.pdf
  6. ↑ Daniel (5 June 2012). "Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (23): 8812–8819. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1114773109. PMID 22615401. 
  7. ↑ Kirchhoff (13 November 2012). "Pivotal cultural values of nature cannot be integrated into the ecosystem services framework". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (46): E3146. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1212409109. PMID 23012476. 
  8. ↑ Cf. Cosgrove, D.E. 1984: Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape, London; Schama, S. 1995: Landscape and memory. New York; Kirchhoff, T./Trepl, L./Vicenzotti, V. 2012:What is landscape ecology? An analysis and evaluation of six different conceptions. Landscape Research iFirst.
  9. ↑ Cf. Cosgrove, D.E. 1984: Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape, London; Schama, S. 1995: Landscape and memory. New York; Backhaus, G./Murungi, J. (eds.): Symbolic Landscapes. Dordrecht 2009.
  10. ↑ https://cices.eu/Templeeti:Full citation needed
  11. ↑ Slade (September 2019). "When Do More Species Maximize More Ecosystem Services?". Trends in Plant Science 24 (9): 790–793. DOI:10.1016/j.tplants.2019.06.014. PMID 31326334. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Kremen (May 2005). "Managing ecosystem services: what do we need to know about their ecology?: Ecology of ecosystem services". Ecology Letters 8 (5): 468–479. DOI:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00751.x. PMID 21352450. 
  13. ↑ Balvanera (February 2005). "Applying community structure analysis to ecosystem function: examples from pollination and carbon storage". Ecological Applications 15 (1): 360–375. DOI:10.1890/03-5192. 
  14. ↑ Walker (March 1992). "Biodiversity and Ecological Redundancy". Conservation Biology 6 (1): 18–23. DOI:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610018.x. 
  15. ↑ Frost (1995). "Species Compensation and Complementarity in Ecosystem Function", Linking Species & Ecosystems, 224–239. DOI:10.1007/978-1-4615-1773-3_22. ISBN 978-1-4613-5714-8. 
  16. ↑ Hooper (2005). "Effects of Biodiversity on Ecosystem Functioning: A Consensus of Current Knowledge". Ecological Monographs 75 (1): 3–35. DOI:10.1890/04-0922. 
  17. ↑ Naeem (18 July 2008). "Species Redundancy and Ecosystem Reliability". Conservation Biology 12 (1): 39–45. DOI:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.96379.x. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Lawton (1994). "What Do Species Do in Ecosystems?". Oikos 71 (3): 367–374. DOI:10.2307/3545824. 
  19. ↑ Tilman (March 1998). "Diversity‐Stability Relationships: Statistical Inevitability or Ecological Consequence?". The American Naturalist 151 (3): 277–282. DOI:10.1086/286118. PMID 18811358. 
  20. ↑ Elmqvist (November 2003). "Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1 (9): 488–494. DOI:[0488:RDECAR2.0.CO;2 10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0488:RDECAR]2.0.CO;2]. 
  21. ↑ Grime (29 August 1997). "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function: The Debate Deepens". Science 277 (5330): 1260–1261. DOI:10.1126/science.277.5330.1260. 
  22. ↑ US EPA (2017-11-02). Coastal Waters (en). US EPA. Retrieved on 2020-05-04.
  23. ↑ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. www.millenniumassessment.org. Archived from the original on 24 February 2018. Retrieved on 28 April 2018.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Molnar (2009). Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved on 2014-12-01.
  25. ↑ Campos C. (December 2011). "Soil water retention and carbon pools in tropical forested wetlands and marshes of the Gulf of Mexico". Hydrological Sciences Journal 56 (8): 1388–1406. DOI:10.1080/02626667.2011.629786. 
  26. ↑ Badola (March 2005). "Valuing ecosystem functions: an empirical study on the storm protection function of Bhitarkanika mangrove ecosystem, India". Environmental Conservation 32 (1): 85–92. DOI:10.1017/S0376892905001967. 
  27. ↑ (2020) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Main report. Rome: FAO. DOI:10.4060/ca9825en. ISBN 978-92-5-132974-0. 
  28. ↑ (2020) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings. FAO. DOI:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN 978-92-5-132581-0. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 (2019) Global forest products facts and figures 2018. FAO. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 (2020) The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief. Rome: FAO & UNEP. DOI:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN 978-92-5-132707-4. 
  31. ↑ (2004) Read "Valuing Ecosystem Services: Toward Better Environmental Decision-Making" at NAP.edu (in en). DOI:10.17226/11139. ISBN 978-0-309-09318-7. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Molnar, Michelle; Clarke-Murray, Cathryn; Whitworth, Jogn & Tam, Jordan. Archived copy. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved on 2014-12-01., 2009
  33. ↑ What is Freshwater and Where is it Found? (en). World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved on 13 July 2021.
  34. ↑ Top 10 Things You Didn't Know About Offshore Wind Energy (en). Energy.gov. Retrieved on 19 July 2021.
  35. ↑ Cultural services (en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved on 19 July 2021.
  36. ↑ Geng (2017-10-25). "The implications of ritual practices and ritual plant uses on nature conservation: a case study among the Naxi in Yunnan Province, Southwest China". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 13 (1): 58. DOI:10.1186/s13002-017-0186-3. ISSN 1746-4269. PMID 29065881. 
  37. ↑ Westcott (2021-06-04). "5.2 Recreation and Adventure Tourism in BC" (in en). 
  38. ↑ Goal 14 targets (en). UNDP. Archived from the original on 2020-09-30. Retrieved on 2020-09-24.
  39. ↑ Ecosystem Services (en). National Wildlife Federation. Retrieved on 19 July 2021.
  40. ↑ "Nutrient Cycles: Recycling in Ecosystems, The Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles – ScienceAid", ScienceAid. Retrieved on 2018-05-16. (in en)
  41. ↑ UK National Ecosystem Assessment Technical Report, UK NEA. Archived from the original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved on 2014-12-01., Chapters 13–16, June 2011
  42. ↑ Steele (2019-01-01). "Comparison of marine and terrestrial ecosystems: suggestions of an evolutionary perspective influenced by environmental variation". ICES Journal of Marine Science 76 (1): 50–59. DOI:10.1093/icesjms/fsy149. ISSN 1054-3139. 
  43. ↑ ISBN1118506243 – Google zoeken. Retrieved on 28 April 2018.
  44. ↑ Ecosystem Services. msu.edu. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved on 28 April 2018.
  45. ↑ Oxygen and Human Requirements. www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu. Archived from the original on 22 October 2017. Retrieved on 28 April 2018.
  46. ↑ BBC – GCSE Bitesize: Inhaled and exhaled air. bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved on 28 April 2018.
  47. ↑ Raudsepp-Hearne (September 2010). "Untangling the Environmentalist's Paradox: Why Is Human Well-being Increasing as Ecosystem Services Degrade?". BioScience 60 (8): 576–589. DOI:10.1525/bio.2010.60.8.4. 
  48. ↑ Hardin (13 December 1968). "The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality.". Science 162 (3859): 1243–1248. DOI:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243. PMID 17756331. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Daily (21 July 2000). "The Value of Nature and the Nature of Value". Science 289 (5478): 395–396. DOI:10.1126/science.289.5478.395. PMID 10939949. 
  50. ↑ DeFries (June 2004). "Land-use choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2 (5): 249–257. DOI:[0249:LCBHNA2.0.CO;2 10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0249:LCBHNA]2.0.CO;2]. 
  51. ↑ Górriz-Mifsud (February 2016). "Demand and supply of ecosystem services in a Mediterranean forest: Computing payment boundaries". Ecosystem Services 17: 53–63. DOI:10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.11.006. 
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Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

dezie

Njikọ mpụga

dezie
N'obodo dị iche iche
  • Ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi na US Forest Service
  • GecoServ Gulf of Mexico Ecosystem Services Valuation Database
  • LIFE VIVA Ọrụ gburugburu ebe obibi ahịhịa na mba Baltic (nnyocha na atụmatụ jikọtara ọnụ)
Ewepụtara na https://ig.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ọrụ_gburugburu_ebe_obibi&oldid=191245