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Ịzụ atụrụ

 

Otu anụ nke Ndị Bakhtiari, Chaharmahal na Bakhtiari Province, Iran
Map zuru ụwa ọnụ nke ịkpa anụ, mmalite ya na mmepe akụkọ ihe mere eme [1]

Ịzụ anụ bụ ụdị anụ ụlọ ebe a na-ahapụ anụ ụlọ (nke a maara dị ka "anụmanụ") n'elu nnukwu ala ahịhịa ahịhịa (ebe ịta nri) maka ịta nri, site n'akụkọ ihe mere eme site n'aka ndị na-akwagharị na-eji ìgwè ehi ha na-agagharị. Ụdị anụmanụ ndị ahụ gụnyere ehi, kamel, ewu, ụgbọ mmiri, llamas, mgbada, ịnyịnya, na atụrụ.

Ịzụ nri na-adị n'ụdị dị iche iche n'ụwa niile, n'ozuzu ebe njirimara gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka ala kpọrọ nkụ, ala na-adịghị mma, oyi ma ọ bụ okpomọkụ, na enweghị mmiri na-eme ka ihe ọkụkụ sie ike ma ọ bụ na-agaghị ekwe omume. Ịrụ ọrụ na gburugburu ebe dị oke njọ nwere ala ndị dị ntakịrị pụtara na obodo ndị na-azụ anụ na-enwekarị nsogbu nke okpomoku zuru ụwa ọnụ.[2]

Ịzụ nri ka bụ ụzọ ndụ n'ọtụtụ mpaghara, gụnyere Africa, ugwu Tibet, ugwu Eurasia, Andes, Patagonia, Pampas, Australia na ọtụtụ ebe ndị ọzọ. N'ihe dị ka afọ 2019, n'etiti nde mmadụ 200 na nde 500 n'ụwa niile na-azụ anụ, na 75% nke mba niile nwere obodo ndị ọzụzụ atụrụ..[2]  

Obodo ndị na-azụ atụrụ nwere ọkwa dị iche iche nke ịgagharị agagharị. Ịkpa anụ na-anọghị n'otu ebe aghọwo ihe a na-ahụkarị ka ịkawanye ókèala ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, ala, mgbasawanye nke Ọrụ ugbo, na iwu mgbidi na ụlọ ọrụ ugbo raara onwe ya nye na-ebelata ikike ịkwaga anụ ụlọ n'enweghị ihe mgbochi, na-eduga na ịrị elu nke ọrụ ugpo na mpaghara ịta nri (nke a na-akpọ "ugbo" mgbe ụfọdụ). Ndị na-azụ anụ nwere ike ịzụlite ihe ọkụkụ na anụ ụlọ ọnụ n'ụdị ọrụ ugbo ngwakọta, maka ebumnuche nke imepụta ihe dị iche iche, inweta nsị maka ọrụ ugbo, na imeziwanye ọnọdụ ịta ahịhịa maka anụ ụlọ ha. Ịkpa anụ na-agagharị agagharị na-agụnye ịkwaga ìgwè atụrụ n'ógbè ahụ gafee obere ebe na-achọ nri na mmiri (ihe nwere ike ime kwa ụbọchị ma ọ bụ ọbụna n'ime awa ole na ole); yana ịkwaga, ebe ndị na-azụ anụ na-ebugharị anụmanụ n'etiti ebe ịta nri dị iche iche gafee mpaghara; na nomadism, ebe ndị ọzụzụ anụ na ezinụlọ ha na-agafe na-achọ ebe ịta ahịhịa ọ bụla dị - na-enweghị atụmatụ ogologo oge. A pụrụ ịkpọ ịta ahịhịa n'ọhịa na oké ọhịa Silvopastoralism.[3]A na-akpọ ndị na-azụ atụrụ "ndị na-azụ anụ".

Ndị na-azụ anụ na-emekọrịta ihe na gburugburu ebe obibi ha, ma na-emekọrịta mmekọrịta mmadụ na gburugburu ebe obibi dị ka ụzọ [a chọrọ] isi gbanwee ihe ọkụkụ na-akụghị mkpụrụ (dị ka ahịhịa ọhịa) ka ọ bụrụ nri. N'ọtụtụ ebe, ìgwè ehi na-ata nri na savannas na n'ime ọhịa nwere ike inye aka ịnọgide na-enwe ọdịdị dị iche iche nke ọdịdị ala ndị dị otú ahụ ma gbochie ha ịghọ nnukwu ọhịa ma ọ bụ ọhịa. Ịta nri na ịchọgharị n'ogo kwesịrị ekwesị na-enwekarị ike ịbawanye ụdị ndụ dị iche iche na mpaghara ihu igwe Mediterranean.[6][7] Ndị na-azụ anụ na-akpụzi gburugburu ebe obibi n'ụzọ dị iche iche: ụfọdụ obodo na-eji ọkụ eme ka gburugburu ebe obibi dabara adaba maka ịta nri na ịchọgharị anụmanụ.

Mmalite ya

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Ihe osise nkume Sahara site na Oge Pastoral na Tassili n'Ajjer na etiti Sahara, na-egosi ọtụtụ ihe nkiri ọzụzụ atụrụ na ehi na ndị ọzụzụ atụrụ
 
Nchịkọta map nke ụwa na 200 BC:  
 
Ndị Khoikhoi na-akwatu ụlọ ha, na-akwadebe ịkwaga n'ebe ịta nri ọhụrụ. Aquatint nke Samuel Daniell (1805)

Otu echiche na-atụ aro na ịhịa aka n'ahụ malitere site n'ịrụkọ ọrụ ugbo. Bates na Lees tụrụ aro na ntinye nke ogbugba mmiri n'ubi n'ọrụ ugbo rụpụtara ọpụrụiche.[8] Uru nke ọrụ ugbo agwakọtara gụnyere ibelata ihe ize ndụ nke ọdịda, ịgbasa ọrụ, na iji akụrụngwa eme ihe ọzọ. Mkpa uru na ọghọm ndị a dị na ndị ọrụ ugbo dị iche iche ma ọ bụ obodo ndị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo dị iche iche dabere na mmasị mmekọrịta ọha na eze nke ndị ọrụ ugbo na ọnọdụ biophysical dị ka mmiri ozuzo, radieshon, ụdị ala na ọrịa siri ekpebi.[9]. Mmụba nke ọrụ ugbo ogbugba mmiri n'ubi butere mmụba nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ yana agbakwunyere mmetụta na akụrụngwa. Ebe ndị dị n'ókè nke ala ka nọgidere na-eji maka ịzụ ụmụ anụmanụ. Nke a pụtara na a ga-eji ìgwè ehi kpuchi ebe dị anya iji nweta nri zuru ezu. Ọpụrụiche mere n'ihi mkpa ọ dị n'ịrụ ọrụ ugbo na nke ịhịa aka n'ahụ. Ma ọrụ ugbo na nke ịhịa aka n'ahụ malitere n'akụkụ ibe ya, na-enwe mmekọrịta na-aga n'ihu.[4]

Echiche dị iche na-atụ aro na ọzụzụ atụrụ sitere na ịchụ nta na nchịkọta. Ndị na-achụ nta nke ewu na atụrụ ọhịa maara banyere njem ìgwè na mkpa nke ụmụ anụmanụ. Ndị na-achụ nta dị otú ahụ na-agagharị agagharị ma na-eso ìgwè atụrụ na njem ha n'oge. A họọrọ ìgwè atụrụ ndị a na-azụ n'ụlọ ka ha bụrụ ndị a na'aka ndị na-achụ nta na ndị na-achịkọta anụ ụlọ site n'nchịkwa ha. Atụmatụ ndị na-achụ nta na ndị na-achịkọta ihe n'oge gara aga dịgasị iche iche ma dabere na ọnọdụ gburugburu ebe obibi, dị ka nke ndị ọrụ ugbo ngwakọta. Atụmatụ ịchọta nri gụnyere ịchụ nta ma ọ bụ ijide nnukwu anụ na obere anụmanụ, igbu azụ, ịnakọta shellfish ma ọ bụ ụmụ ahụhụ, na ịnakọta nri osisi ọhịa dịka mkpụrụ osisi, mkpụrụ, na mkpụrụ osisi.Atụmatụ dịgasị iche iche maka ịdị ndụ n'etiti ìgwè atụrụ na-agagharị agagharị nwekwara ike inye ụzọ evolushọn na-aga n'ihu na ọzụzụ atụrụ.   [citation needed]

Ihe onwunwe

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Ịkpa anụ na-eme n'ebe ndị a na-akọghị ihe. Anụ ọhịa na-eri nri sitere n'ala ndị dịpụrụ adịpụ ma ụmụ mmadụ na-adị ndụ site na mmiri ara ehi, ọbara, na mgbe mgbe anụ nke ìgwè atụrụ ma na-azụ ahịa ihe ndị ọzọ dị ka ajị anụ na mmiri ara maka ego na nri.[5]

Ndị na-azụ anụ anaghị adị n'ebe a na-eri nri. Ndị na-azụ anụ na-achịkọtakarị akụ na ụba ma sonye na azụmaahịa mba ụwa. Ndị na-azụ anụ na-enwe mmekọrịta azụmahịa n'etiti ndị ọrụ ugbo, ndị ọrụ ubi, na otu ndị ọzọ. Ndị na-azụ anụ anaghị adabere na mmiri ara ehi, ọbara, na anụ nke ìgwè ehi ha. McCabe kwuru na mgbe a na-emepụta ụlọ ọrụ ihe onwunwe nkịtị, n'ime obodo dị ogologo oge, nkwado akụ na ụba dị elu karị, nke pụtara ìhè na ala ahịhịa dị n'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Africa nke ndị na-azụ anụ ọhịa.[12] Agbanyeghị, usoro ikike ihe onwunwe bụ naanị otu n'ime ọtụtụ paramita dị iche iche na-emetụta nkwado nke akụrụngwa, yana ihe nkịtị ma ọ bụ nkeonwe kwa otu, anaghị eduga na nkwado.[6]

Ụfọdụ ndị na-azụ anụ na-agbakwunye ọzụzụ atụrụ site na ịchụ nta na nchịkọta, ịkụ azụ na / ma ọ bụ obere Ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ ọrụ ugbo.

Ịgagharị

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Onye na-azụ anụ Ndị Mongol na mpaghara KhövsgölÓgbè Khövsgöl

Mbugharị na-eme ka ndị na-azụ anụ na-eme mgbanwe na gburugburu ebe obibi, nke na-emepe ohere maka mpaghara ndị na-eme nri na ndị na-amụghị nwa iji kwado ịdị adị mmadụ. Akụkụ ndị dị mkpa nke ịhịa aka n'ahụ gụnyere obere ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị mmadụ, agagharị, ike ike, na usoro ozi dị mgbagwoju anya. A na-agbanwe usoro ahụ ka ọ dabara na gburugburu ebe obibi kama ịhazigharị gburugburu ebe obibi iji kwado "usoro mmepụta nri.".[7]   [citation needed]

Ndị na-azụ anụ na anụ ụlọ ha emetụtala gburugburu ebe obibi. Ala ndị a na-ejikarị eme ihe maka ịzụ atụrụ agbanweela n'okpuru ike nke anụ ụlọ ịta ahịhịa na ọkụ nke mmadụ. Ọkụ bụ ụzọ e si eme ka ala ịta ahịhịa dị ndụ ma gbochie itolite ọhịa. Mkpokọta gburugburu ebe obibi nke ọkụ na ịchọgharị anụ ụlọ agbanweela odida obodo n'ọtụtụ akụkụ ụwa. Ọkụ ekwela ka ndị na-azụ anụ na-elekọta anụ ụlọ ha. Oke ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị gbadoro ụkwụ na oke gburugburu.[15] Osisi osisi pyrophytic na-achị n'osisi Maquis nke dị na mpaghara Mediterenian nke na-eme nke ọma n'okpuru ọnọdụ ọkụ anthropogenic na ịta nri anụ ụlọ.

Ndị na-azụ anụ na-agagharị agagharị nwere usoro mmepụta nri zuru ụwa ọnụ dabere na njikwa anụ ụlọ maka anụ, akpụkpọ anụ, ajị anụ, mmiri ara ehi, ọbara, nsị, na njem. A na-eme njem ọzụzụ atụrụ na ihu igwe na gburugburu ebe obibi dị iche iche na njem kwa ụbọchị na njem oge. Ndị na-azụ anụ so n'etiti ndị na-agbanwe agbanwe. Òtù ndị na-azụ anụ ụlọ enweela ndị ikom na-ebu agha na-echebe anụ ụlọ ha na ndị ha wee laghachi n'usoro a na-ahazighị ahazi nke ịchụ nta. Ngwaahịa nke ìgwè anụmanụ bụ ihe kachasị mkpa, ọ bụ ezie na ojiji nke ihe ndị ọzọ, gụnyere osisi ụlọ na nke ọhịa, anụmanụ a na-achụ, na ngwongwo ndị a na-enweta na akụ na ụba ahịa anaghị ewepụ. Ókèala dị n'etiti steeti na-emetụta ịdị irè nke ndụ na mmekọrịta azụmahịa na ndị ọrụ ugbo.[8]

 
Ezinụlọ Changpa na-akwagharị akwagharị na mbara ala TibetAla Dị larịị nke Tibet

Atụmatụ ọzụzụ atụrụ na-egosipụta mgbanwe dị irè na gburugburu ebe obibi.[9] Ndị na-azụ anụ na-enyocha ọdịiche dị iche iche nke mmiri ozuzo. N'Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Afrịka, a na-akpọrọ ụmụ anụmanụ dị iche iche gaa mpaghara ụfọdụ n'afọ niile nke kwekọrọ na usoro mmiri ozuzo oge.[10] Transshumance bụ ngafe nke anụ ụlọ na ndị na-azụ anụ n'etiti ebe ịta nri n'oge.[11]

Na Himalayas, ndị na-azụ anụ na-adabere na akụkọ ihe mere eme na ọdịnala na Ala ịta ahịhịa dị n'ofe ókèala mba ụwa. Himalayas nwere ọtụtụ ókèala mba ụwa, dị ka ndị dị n'etiti India na China, India na Nepal, Bhutan na China, Inde na Pakistan, na Pakistan na China. Site na uto nke mba dị iche iche n'Eshia kemgbe etiti narị afọ nke iri abụọ, ịgagharị gafee ókèala mba ụwa na mba ndị a na-abụkarị ihe mgbochi na ịchịkwa. N'ihi ya, usoro ochie, omenala nke ọzụzụ atụrụ na-agafe ókèala na-agbanyụkarị, na ọzụzụ atụrụ na ókèala adaala.[12] N'ime mba ndị a, ọzụzụ atụrụ na-enwekarị esemokwu n'ụbọchị ndị a na ụdị ọhụrụ nke ọrụ ọhịa obodo, dị ka Van Panchayats (Uttarakhand) na Community Forest User Groups (Nepal), nke na-abara ndị ọrụ ugbo uru karịa.[13] Esemokwu na-ebilite n'etiti ndị na-azụ anụ na ọrụ mmepe dị ka iwu mmiri na ịmepụta ebe echedoro.[14][15]

Ụfọdụ ndị na-azụ anụ na-agagharị mgbe niile, nke nwere ike ime ka ha na ndị bi n'obodo na obodo dị iche iche ghara ịdị. Esemokwu ndị na-esi na ya apụta nwere ike ibute agha maka ala ndị a na-ese okwu. A na-edekọ esemokwu ndị a n'oge ochie na Middle East, yana maka East Asia.[16][17] Ndị ọzụzụ atụrụ ndị ọzọ nwere ike ịnọ n'otu ebe ahụ nke na-ebute ụlọ ogologo oge.   [citation needed]

 
Ahịa kamel na Sudan

Different mobility patterns can be observed: Somali pastoralists keep their animals in one of the harshest environments but they have evolved of the centuries. Somalis have well developed pastoral culture where complete system of life and governance has been refined. Somali poetry depicts humans interactions, pastoral animals, beasts on the prowl, and other natural things such the rain, celestial events and historic events of significance. Wise sage Guled Haji coined a proverb that encapsulates the centrality of water in pastoral life: Àtụ:Verse translation

Ịgagharị bụ atụmatụ dị mkpa maka Ariaal; Otú ọ dị, na mfu nke ala ịta nri nke mmụba nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ, oké ọkọchị, mgbasawanye nke ọrụ ugbo, na mgbasawanye nke ụlọ ahịa na ogige egwuregwu, njem furu efu. A chụpụrụ ezinụlọ ndị kasị daa ogbenye n'ọrụ ịkpa anụ ma banye n'obodo iji nweta ọrụ. Ezinụlọ Ariaal ole na ole ritere uru site na agụmakwụkwọ, nlekọta ahụike, na ego ha na-enweta.[18]

Mgbanwe nke ndị na-azụ anụ iji meghachi omume na mgbanwe gburugburu ebe obibi belatara site na colonization. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, a kpaara njem na mpaghara Sahel nke Africa na-agba ume ka a biri. Ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị bi na ya mụbara okpukpu atọ ma melite ịdị ọcha na ọgwụgwọ.   [citation needed]

Ihe ọmụma gburugburu ebe obibi

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Ndị na-azụ anụ nwere map nke uru nke gburugburu ebe obibi ụfọdụ n'oge dị iche iche n'afọ. Ndị na-azụ anụ nwere nghọta banyere usoro gburugburu ebe obibi na gburugburu ebe obibi.[19] Ịkekọrịta ozi dị mkpa maka ịmepụta ihe ọmụma site na netwọk nke ndị jikọtara ọnụ.[20]

Ndị na-azụ anụ na-emepụta nri na gburugburu ebe kachasị njọ n'ụwa, mmepụta anụ na-akwado ndụ nke ndị bi n'ime ime obodo na ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ọkara ala ụwa. Ọtụtụ narị nde mmadụ bụ ndị na-azụ anụ, ọtụtụ n'ime ha nọ n'Afrịka na Eshia. ReliefWeb kọrọ na "Ọtụtụ narị nde mmadụ na-azụ anụ - iji ịta ahịhịa buru ibu n'ala maka mmepụta anụ ụlọ, n'ihe karịrị mba 100 n'ụwa niile. African Union mere atụmatụ na Afrịka nwere ihe dị ka nde 268 - ihe karịrị otu ụzọ n'ụzọ anọ nke ndị bi na ya - na-ebi na ihe dị ka pasent 43 nke ala niile dị na kọntinent ahụ. Ndị na-azụ atụrụ na-elekọta ala na-ekpuchi ihe dị ka otu ụzọ n"ụzọ atọ nke ala ụwa ma nwee ike ịmepụta nri ebe mmepụta ihe ọkụkụ na-agaghị ekwe omume.[21]

 
Ndị na-azụ anụ Rọshịa reindeer na Russia

E gosipụtara ọzụzụ atụrụ, "dabere na nyocha nke ọtụtụ ọmụmụ, ka ọ bụrụ n'etiti okpukpu 2 na 10 karịa otu ala ọ bụla karịa isi obodo ndị ọzọ a tụpụtara". Otú ọ dị, ọtụtụ n'ime uru ndị a na-aga n'ụzọ a na-atụleghị ma na-emebi mgbe niile site na iwu na itinye ego nke na-achọ iji ụzọ mmepụta ego dochie ọzụzụ atụrụ.[22] Ha na-ata ahụhụ site na nghọta na-adịghị mma, nchụpụ na nchụpụ site na mkparịta ụka. The Pastoralist Knowledge Hub, nke Food and Agriculture Organization nke UN na-achịkwa na-eje ozi dị ka ebe nchekwa ihe ọmụma banyere nkà na ụzụ dị mma na ọzụzụ atụrụ yana "otu nnọkọ na-anọpụ iche maka mgbanwe na mmekọrịta n'etiti ndị ọzụzụ atụrụ na ndị metụtara ya na-arụ ọrụ na nsogbu ọzụzụ atụrụ".[23]

Ndị na-azụ anụ ndị Afar na Etiopia na-eji usoro nkwurịta okwu ụmụ amaala a na-akpọ dagu maka ozi. Nke a na-enyere ha aka inweta ozi dị mkpa banyere ihu igwe na nnweta nke ebe ịta nri n'ebe dị iche iche.   [citation needed]

Ihe onwunwe nke anụmanụ

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Onye na-azụ atụrụ Maasai na anụ ụlọ ya na Kenya

E nwere ọdịiche dị na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke anụmanụ ugbo nke a na-akpali site na nhọrọ sitere n'okike na nke mmadụ.[24] Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ndị na-azụ anụ n'akụkụ buru ibu nke Sub Sahara Africa na-ahọrọ ụdị anụ ụlọ nke na-adaba na gburugburu ebe obibi ha ma nwee ike ịnagide ụkọ mmiri ozuzo na ọrịa.[25] Otú ọ dị, na usoro mmepụta anụmanụ ndị ọzọ, a na-akụda ụdị ndị a ma na-akwado ndị ọzọ na-amịpụta ihe.[24] A pụghị ịhapụ ọnọdụ a n'enweghị ngwọta n'ihi mgbanwe na mmasị ahịa na ihu igwe n'ụwa niile, nke nwere ike iduga na mgbanwe na ọrịa anụ ụlọ na mbelata ogo nri na nnweta.[26] Ya mere, ndị na-azụ anụ nwere ike idebe ihe onwunwe nke anụmanụ site n'ichebe ụdị anụ ụlọ.[25] N'ozuzu, ichekwa ihe onwunwe nke anụmanụ n'okpuru ọzụzụ anụ ụlọ bara uru n'ihe gbasara ntụkwasị obi na ọnụahịa metụtara ya.[27]

Ọdachi nke ndị nkịtị

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Hardin's Tragedy of the Commons (1968) kọwara otú ihe onwunwe ndị a na-ahụkarị, dị ka ala ndị na-azụ anụ na-ekerịta, si mechaa bụrụ ihe a na-ejikarị eme ihe ma mebie.[28] Dị ka akwụkwọ Hardin si kwuo, usoro ndị na-azụ anụ na-eji ala eme ihe adịghị akwụsi ike ma bụrụ ihe kpatara Mmebi gburugburu ebe obibi.[29]

 
Ndị na-azụ anụ Tuareg na ìgwè atụrụ ha si na Niger gbaga n'ebe ndịda banye na Naịjirịa n'oge nsogbu nri Niger 2005-06

Otu n'ime ọnọdụ Hardin maka "ọdachi nke ndị nkịtị" bụ na ndị mmadụ enweghị ike ikwurịta okwu ma ọ bụ mee nkwekọrịta na nkwekọrịta. Ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta ekwuola na nke a bụ ihe a na-apụghị ikwere na ya, ma a na-etinye ya na ọrụ mmepe gburugburu ụwa, na-akpali mbibi nke obodo na usoro ọchịchị ndị ọzọ nke na-elekọta usoro ọzụzụ atụrụ na-adịgide adịgide ruo ọtụtụ puku afọ. Nsonaazụ ya abụwo ọdachi.[30] N'akwụkwọ ya bụ Governing the Commons, Elinor Ostrom gosipụtara na obodo ndị a ejighị n'aka ma bụrụ ndị na-enweghị enyemaka n'etiti ndị mmadụ na-ebelata. O kwuru na enwere ike ijikwa ihe onwunwe, dị ka ala ịta ahịhịa eji eme anụ, site na otu obodo na ndị otu mmekọrịta karịa site na nkeonwe ma ọ bụ nchịkwa gọọmentị zuru oke.[31] E nyere Ostrom ihe nrite Nobel Memorial Prize na sayensị akụ na ụba maka ọrụ ya.[32]

A na-ewere ndị na-azụ atụrụ na mpaghara Sahel n'Africa dị ka ndị na-ahụ maka mbelata nke ihe onwunwe.[29] Ọ bụ n'ezie na ntinye aka na ọnọdụ ihu igwe ntaramahụhụ kpatara mbelata nke ihe onwunwe.[33] Akwụkwọ Hardin tụrụ aro ngwọta maka nsogbu ndị ahụ, na-enye ihe ndabere maka nnwere onwe nke ala, nke na-akpali nnyefe ala site n'aka ndị agbụrụ gaa na steeti ma ọ bụ ndị mmadụ n'otu n'otu.[28] Ihe omume ndị a na-eme ka ha bụrụ ndị nweere onwe ha na-emetụta ndụ nke ndị na-azụ anụ ụlọ ka ha na-emebi gburugburu ebe obibi.[19] Usoro obibi na-ejikarị mkpa nke steeti na-ebelata nnwere onwe na ndụ nke ndị na-azụ atụrụ.   [citation needed]

Agha obi ọjọọ nke ndị na-azụ atụrụ na ndị ọrụ ugbo na Naijiria, Mali, Sudan, Etiopia na mba ndị ọzọ dị na mpaghara Sahel na Horn of Africa emeela ka ọ ka njọ site na Mgbanwe ihu igwe, mmebi ala, na mmụba nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ.[34][35]

E gosikwara na ịkpa anụ na-akwado ịdị adị mmadụ na gburugburu ebe siri ike ma na-anọchite anya ụzọ na-adịgide adịgide maka iji ala eme ihe.[19][36]

Hụkwa

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Ebem si dee

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  1. ↑ Stephens (2019-08-30). "Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use" (in en). Science 365 (6456): 897–902. DOI:10.1126/science.aax1192. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31467217. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Mbow (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security", IPCC SRCCL, 439–442.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":03" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ Plieninger (2018). "Complex Rangeland Systems: Integrated Social-Ecological Approaches to Silvopastoralism". Rangeland Ecology and Management 71 (6): 519–525. DOI:10.1016/j.rama.2018.05.002. 
  4. ↑ Lees (1974). "The Origins of Specialized Nomadic Pastoralism: A Systemic Model". American Antiquity 39 (2): 187–193. DOI:10.2307/279581. 
  5. ↑ Bates, 1998:105
  6. ↑ Ho (2000). "China's Rangelands under Stress: A Comparative Study of Pasture Commons in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region" (in en). Development and Change 31 (2): 385–412. DOI:10.1111/1467-7660.00159. ISSN 1467-7660. 
  7. ↑ (Bates, 1998:104)
  8. ↑ Moran (2006). People and Nature: An Introduction to Human Ecological Relations. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 51–52. ISBN 978-1-4051-0571-2. 
  9. ↑ Fagan, B. (1999) "Drought Follows the Plow", Chapter 11 of Floods, Famines and Emperors: Basic Books.
  10. ↑ Giulio Angioni (1989) I pascoli erranti: Liguori
  11. ↑ transhumance | pastoral society | Britannica. www.britannica.com.
  12. ↑ Pandey (2017-01-02). "Withering of traditional institutions? An institutional analysis of the decline of migratory pastoralism in the rangelands of the Kailash Sacred Landscape, western Himalayas". Environmental Sociology 3 (1): 87–100. DOI:10.1080/23251042.2016.1272179. 
  13. ↑ Pandey (2017-01-02). "Withering of traditional institutions? An institutional analysis of the decline of migratory pastoralism in the rangelands of the Kailash Sacred Landscape, western Himalayas". Environmental Sociology 3 (1): 87–100. DOI:10.1080/23251042.2016.1272179. 
  14. ↑ Chakravarty-Kaul (1998). "Transhumance and Customary Pastoral Rights in Himachal Pradesh: Claiming the High Pastures for Gaddis". Mountain Research and Development 18 (1): 5–17. DOI:10.2307/3673864. ISSN 0276-4741. 
  15. ↑ Strangers in their own land (en). www.downtoearth.org.in. Retrieved on 2022-08-04.
  16. ↑ Ho (2000). "The Myth of Desertification at China's Northwestern Frontier: The Case of Ningxia Province, 1929–1958" (in en). Modern China 26 (3): 348–395. DOI:10.1177/009770040002600304. ISSN 0097-7004. 
  17. ↑ Ho (2003). "Mao's War against Nature? The Environmental Impact of the Grain-First Campaign in China". The China Journal 50 (50): 37–59. DOI:10.2307/3182245. ISSN 1324-9347. 
  18. ↑ Townsend (2009). Environmental Anthropology: From Pigs to Policies. United States: Waveland Press, 57–58. ISBN 978-1-57766-581-6. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Wilson (1992). "Re-Thinking the Pastoral Ecological Impact in East Africa". Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 2 (4): 143–144. DOI:10.2307/2997644.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Wilson92" defined multiple times with different content
  20. ↑ Roe (1998). "High-Reliability Pastoralism Versus Risk-Averse Pastoralism". The Journal of Environment & Development 7 (Dec): 387–399. DOI:10.1177/107049659800700404. 
  21. ↑ "Farmer-Herder Conflicts on the Rise in Africa", ReliefWeb, 6 August 2018.
  22. ↑ McGahey (2014). Pastoralism and the Green Economy –a natural nexus?. Nairobi: IUCN and UNEP, x+58. ISBN 978-2-8317-1689-3. 
  23. ↑ FAO, 2016. The Pastoralist Knowledge Hub. http://www.fao.org/pastoralist-knowledge-hub/background/why-a-hub/en/ retrieved Nov. 2016
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Wollny (2003). "The need to conserve farm animal genetic resources in Africa: should policy makers be concerned?". Ecological Economics 45 (3): 341–351. DOI:10.1016/s0921-8009(03)00089-2. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Zander (2009). "Costing the conservation of animal genetic resources: The case of Borana cattle in Ethiopia and Kenya". Journal of Arid Environments 73 (4–5): 550–556. DOI:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.11.003. 
  26. ↑ Philipsson, J. (2011). "Global perspectives on animal genetic resources for sustainable agriculture and food production in the tropics", in Ojango, J.M.: Animal Genetics Training Resource (in en). 
  27. ↑ Paiva (2016). "Conservation of animal genetic resources – A new tact". Livestock Science 193: 32–38. DOI:10.1016/j.livsci.2016.09.010. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Hardin (1968). "The Tragedy of the Commons". Science 162 (3859): 1243–1248. DOI:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243. PMID 17756331.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hardin68" defined multiple times with different content
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Fratkin (1997). "Pastoralism: Governance and Development Issues". Annual Review of Anthropology 26: 235–261. DOI:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.235.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Fratkin97" defined multiple times with different content
  30. ↑ Li (2011). "China's Grassland Contract Policy and its Impacts on Herder Ability to Benefit in Inner Mongolia: Tragic Feedbacks". Ecology and Society 16 (2). DOI:10.5751/ES-03969-160201. 
  31. ↑ Ostrom (1990). Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40599-7. 
  32. ↑ Nobel Prize Awarded Women. Retrieved on 14 October 2019.
  33. ↑ Ho (2001). "Rangeland Degradation in North China Revisited? A Preliminary Statistical Analysis to Validate Non-Equilibrium Range Ecology". The Journal of Development Studies 37 (3): 99–133. DOI:10.1080/00220380412331321991. ISSN 0022-0388. 
  34. ↑ "The battle on the frontline of climate change in Mali", BBC News, 22 January 2019.
  35. ↑ "The Deadliest Conflict You've Never Heard of", Foreign Affairs, 23 January 2019.
  36. ↑ Hoon (1996). Living on the Move: Bhotiyas of the Kumaon Himalaya. New Delhi: Sage Publications. 
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