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Ịkpụcha

Ịkọ ugbo bụ nkwadebe nke ala site na mgbakasị igwe nke ụdị dị iche iche, dị ka igwu ala, ịkpali, na ịtụgharị. Ọmụmaatụ nke ụzọ ịkọ ugbo na-akwado mmadụ site na iji ngwa aka gụnyere shọvel, ịhọpụta, ọrụ mattock, ịkwọ ụgbọ na ịkwọ ụgbọ. Ọmụmaatụ nke arụrụ arụ-anụmanụ na-arụ ọrụ ma ọ bụ mechanized na-agụnye ịkọ ihe (ịtụgharị na bọọdụ mkpụkọ ma ọ bụ chiseling na chisel shanks), ịgbagharị agbagharị, na-atụgharị na ndị na-akpa anụ ma ọ bụ ndị na-agbagharị agbagharị ndị ọzọ, ịkpagbu, na iji nkịrịka ndị na-akọ ugbo (eze).

Ogwe ọka mgbe owuwe ihe ubi gasịrị (Plick for video)

A na-ekewa ịkọ ugbo nke dị omimi na nke ọma dị ka nke mbụ, na ịkọ ugbo nke na-emighị emi na mgbe ụfọdụ ka a na-ahọrọ ebe bụ nke abụọ. Ahịhịa nke mbụ dị ka ịkọ ihe na-eme ka ọ pụta ìhè n'elu ala, ebe ịkọ ugbo nke abụọ na-eme ka ọ dịkwuo mma, dị ka nke a chọrọ iji mee ezigbo mkpụrụ maka ọtụtụ ihe ọkụkụ. Igbu na rototilling na-ejikọtakarị ịkọ ugbo na nke abụọ n'otu ọrụ.

""Tillage" nwekwara ike ịpụta ala a na-akọ. Okwu a bu "ihe ubi" nwere otutu uzo nke gbakotara nke oma na nke "ihe ubi". N'okwu n'ozuzu, ha abụọ nwere ike na-ezo aka na ọrụ ugbo. N'ime ọrụ ugbo, ha abụọ nwere ike na-ezo aka n'ụdị mkpasu iwe ala ọ bụla. Na mgbakwunye, "ịkụ mkpụrụ" ma ọ bụ "ịkọ" nwere ike na-ezo aka n'echiche dị warara nke na-emighị emi, nhọrọ nke abụọ nke ubi ubi ahịrị n'ahịrị nke na-egbu ahịhịa ma na-echekwa ihe ọkụkụ.

Nkọwa

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Ọrụ ugbo mbụ na-eme ka ala dị nro ma na-agwakọta na fatịlaịza ma ọ bụ ihe ọkụkụ, na-emepe ala nwere ọdịdị siri ike.

Ugbo ala nke abụọ na-emepụta ala dị mma ma na-akpụzi ahịrị ndị ahụ mgbe ụfọdụ, na-akwadebe akwa mkpụrụ. Ọ na-enyekwa njikwa ahihia n'oge niile n'oge na-eto eto n'oge ntozu nke ihe ọkụkụ, ọ gwụla ma a na-enweta usoro nchịkwa ahihia ahụ site na usoro dị ala ma ọ bụ na-enweghị oge metụtara ahịhịa ahịhịa.

  • Enwere ike iji harrows (nke nwere ọtụtụ ụdị na subtypes), dibbles, hoes, shọvel, rotary tillers, subsoilers, ridge- ma ọ bụ bed-forming tillers, rollers, ma ọ bụ cultivators mee nkwadebe nke mkpụrụ osisi.
  • A na-ejikarị ndị ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ hoes eme ihe n'ịchịkwa ahịhịa, ruo n'ókè nke a na-eme site n'ịkọ ugbo, nke na-enye nsogbu n'elu sentimita ole na ole nke ala gburugburu osisi ma na-enwe obere nsogbu nke osisi n'onwe ha. Ịkụ ugbo na-egbu ahịhịa site na usoro abụọ: iwepụ ha, ili akwụkwọ ha (ịkpụpụ photosynthesis ha), ma ọ bụ ngwakọta nke ha abụọ. Nchịkwa ahịhịa na-egbochi ahịhịhịa ka ahịhụ ghara imeri ha (maka mmiri na ìhè anyanwụ) ma na-egide ahịhịrị ka ha ghara iru ọkwa mkpụrụ ha, si otú a belata mmegide nke ahịhụrụ n'ọdịnihu.

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Ịkụ nta na ehi Grey nke Hungary

A na-eme Tilling na mbụ site na ọrụ mmadụ, mgbe ụfọdụ na-emetụta ndị ohu. A pụkwara iji anụmanụ ndị nwere okpu rụọ ọrụ ugbo ala site na ịzọ ụkwụ, na mgbakwunye na ezì, ndị nwere ikike okike ịgbọrọ mgbọrọgwụ n'ala mgbe niile ma ọ bụrụ na a hapụrụ ha. Mgbe ahụ, e mepụtara ogwu osisi. (Ọ na-esiri ike ịkọwa kpọmkwem ụbọchị e mepụtara ya. Otú ọ dị, ihe akaebe mbụ nke iji ugbo eme ihe malitere n'ihe dị ka 4000 BCE na Mesopotemia (Iraq nke oge a) .  Enwere ike iji ọrụ mmadụ, ma ọ bụ ịnyịnya ibu, ehi, enyí, atụ mmiri, ma ọ ọ bụ anụmanụ siri ike yiri ya dọrọ ya. Ịnyịnya na-adịkarị njọ, ọ bụ ezie na a zụlitere ụdị dị ka Clydesdale dị ka anụmanụ na-ebugharị.

Ịchụ nta nwere ike ịbụ ọrụ siri ike mgbe ụfọdụ. A tụlere akụkụ a na narị afọ nke iri na isii nke French agronomic ederede nke Charles Estienne dere: [1]   Ịbụ onye a ma ama nke ịkọ ugbo dị ka usoro ọrụ ugbo n'oge mmalite nke oge a nwere ihe jikọrọ ya na echiche banyere ihe ndị dị ndụ nke ndị na-eche echiche na Europe. N'afọ 1731, onye edemede Bekee bụ Jethro Tull bipụtara akwụkwọ "Horse-Hoeing Husbandry: An Essay on the Principles of Vegetation and Tillage," nke kwuru na ọ dị mkpa ka a kpọọ ala ka ọ bụrụ ntụ ntụ dị mma maka osisi iji ya mee ihe. Tull kwenyere na, ebe ọ bụ na mmiri, ikuku, na okpomọkụ abụghị ihe bụ isi nke osisi, a na-eji ájá eme osisi, ya mere ha ga-eri obere ala dị ka nri. Tull dere na ọrụ ugbo ọ bụla na-esote nke ala ga-eme ka uto ya dịkwuo ukwuu, nakwa na ọ gaghị ekwe omume ịkọ ala nke ukwuu.[2] Otú ọ dị, nchọpụta sayensị egosila na ihe megidere ya bụ eziokwu; ịkọ ugbo na-eme ka ala tụfuo àgwà ọdịdị nke na-enye ohere ka mgbọrọgwụ osisi, mmiri, na ihe na-edozi ahụ banye na ya, na-eme ngwa ngwa ọnwụ ala site na mbuze, ma na-akpata mkpakọ ala. [3]

ígwè ịkwaga mere ka a rụọ ọrụ ugbo na Midwest America, ebe ahịhịa na nkume siri ike kpatara nsogbu. N'oge na-adịghị anya mgbe afọ 1900 gasịrị, e webatara traktọ ugbo, nke mere ka ọrụ ugbo buru ibu nke oge a nwee ike. Otú ọ dị, mbibi nke ahịhịa ahịhịhịa na ịkọ ugbo nke ala na-eme nri nke American Midwest kpatara Dust Bowl, ebe a na-ebugharị ala ma mee ka ọ bụrụ Uzuzu nke na-eme ka mbara igwe gbaa ọchịchịrị. Nke a mere ka a tụgharịa uche na usoro ọrụ ugbo, mana na United States ka ọ na-erule 2019, e mere atụmatụ na 3 puku ijeri ala ga-efu n'ihi mbuze mgbe ịnakwere usoro ka mma maka ịchịkwa mbuze ka na-agbasa.[4][5] N'etiti afọ 1930 Frank na Herbert Petty nke Doncaster, Victoria, Australia mepụtara Petty Plough. Enwere ike ịdọrọ ma ọ bụ ịnyịnya abụọ ma ọ bụ traktọ ma nwee ike ịdọta ụkwụ diski n'otu, ma ọ bụ na-enye onye ọrụ ohere ịsụ n'etiti ahịrị nakwa n'etiti na gburugburu osisi.

Ụdị

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Ọrụ ugbo nke mbụ na nke abụọ

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A na-eduzi ịkọ ihe ọkụkụ mgbe oge owuwe ihe ubi ikpeazụ gasịrị, mgbe ala dị mmiri nke ọma iji kwe ka ịkọ ihe mana ọ na-enye ohere nke ọma. Enwere ike ịkọ ụfọdụ ụdị ala akọrọ. Ebumnobi nke ịkọ ugbo bụ iji nweta ala dị nro nke ezi uche dị na ya, tinye ihe fọdụrụ n'ihe ọkụkụ, gbuo ata, na ịgbasa ala. Ịkọ ubi nke abụọ bụ ihe ọkụkụ ọ bụla na-esote, iji tinye fatịlaịza, belata ala ka ọ bụrụ ọka kacha mma, gbatịa elu, ma ọ bụ ịchịkwa ahịhịa..[6]

Mbelata ugbo

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Mbelata ugbo [ihe odide 1] akwụkwọ dị n'etiti 15 na 30% ihe ọkụkụ fọdụrụ n'ala ma ọ bụ 500 ruo 1000 pound kwa acre (560 ruo 1100 kg / hectare) nke obere ọka fọdụrụnụ n'oge oge erosion dị egwu.  Nke a nwere ike ịgụnye iji ihe na-akọ ugbo, ndị ọrụ ugbo, ma ọ bụ ihe ndị ọzọ. Lee nkọwa n'ozuzu n'okpuru iji hụ otú ha ga-esi metụta ọnụ ọgụgụ nke ihe fọdụrụnụ.

Ịkụ ugbo n'ụzọ siri ike

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Ịkụ ugbo siri ike [ihe odide 1] na-ahapụ ihe na-erughị 15% ihe ọkụkụ fọdụrụnụ ma ọ bụ ihe na- erughị 500 pound kwa acre (560 kg / hectare) nke obere ọka fọdụrụ.  A na-akpọkarị ụdị ọrụ ugbo a dị ka ọrụ ugbo nkịtị, mana dị ka a na-eji ọrụ ugbo eme ihe ugbu a karịa ọrụ ugbo siri ike (na United States), ọ naghị adịkarị mma ịkọwa ụdị ọrụ ugpo a dị ka nke omenala.[7][8] Ịkụ ugbo siri ike na-agụnyekarị ọtụtụ ọrụ na ngwá ọrụ dịka bọọdụ ebu, diski, ma ọ bụ arọ chisel. Mgbe nke a gasịrị, enwere ike iji ihe na-emecha ihe na-agbawa agbawa, nkata na-agbagharị, na onye na-egbu egbu kwadebe ihe ndina mkpụrụ. E nwere ọtụtụ ọdịiche.

Ịchekwa ugbo

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Ịkọ ubi nchekwa [ihe edeturu 1] na-ahapụ opekata mpe 30% nke ihe fọdụrụ n'ihe ọkụkụ n'elu ala, ma ọ bụ opekata mpe 1,000 lb/ac (1,100 kg/ha) nke obere ọka fọdụrụ n'elu n'oge oge oke ala dị oke mkpa. Nke a na-ebelata mmegharị mmiri, nke na-ebelata oke mbuze nke ala. Na mgbakwunye, a chọpụtala na ịkọ ihe nchekwa na-erite uru arthropods na-eri anụ nke nwere ike ịkwalite njikwa ụmụ ahụhụ.[9] Ịkọ ugbo na-abarakwa ndị ọrụ ugbo uru na nchekwa site n'ibelata oriri mmanụ na mkpirisi ala. Site n'ibelata ugboro ole onye ọrụ ugbo na-eme njem n'ọhịa, a na-enweta nnukwu ego na mmanụ ụgbọala na ọrụ.

A na-eji ọrụ ugbo eme ihe n'ihe karịrị nde acres 370, karịsịa na South America, Oceania na North America.[9] N'ọtụtụ afọ kemgbe 1997, a na-eji ọrụ ugbo na-echekwa ihe na US karịa ọrụ ugbo siri ike ma ọ bụ belata. [8]

Otú ọ dị, nchedo ọrụ ugbo na-egbu oge okpomọkụ nke ala n'ihi mbelata nke ikpughe ụwa gbara ọchịchịrị na okpomọkụ oge opupu ihe ubi, si otú a na-egbughị oge ịkụ ọka n'afọ na-esote.[10]

  • No-till - a naghị eji ala ịkpa, diski, na ihe ndị ọzọ. Ebumnuche maka 100% mkpuchi ala.
  • Strip-til - A na-akụ obere ahịrị ebe a ga-akụ mkpụrụ, na-ahapụ ala n'etiti ahịrị ruo.[11]
  • Mulch-till - A na-ekpuchi ala na mulch iji chekwaa okpomọkụ na mmiri. 100% nsogbu ala.
  • Rotational tillage - Ịkụ ala kwa afọ abụọ ma ọ bụ obere oge (afọ ọ bụla ọzọ, ma ọ bụ afọ atọ ọ bụla, wdg). [11]
  • Ridge-till [nkọwa ọzọ dị mkpa] 

Ịkụ ugbo n'ógbè

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Ịkọ ubi mpaghara bụ ụdị ịkụ ihe ọkụkụ dị omimi gbanwetụrụ bụ nke a na-akọ naanị ibe dị warara, na-ahapụ ala n'etiti ahịrị ndị ahụ ruo mgbe a ga-akụ ya. Ụdị ịkụ ihe ọkụkụ a na-eme ka ala na-ama jijiji iji nyere aka belata nsogbu nchikota ala na imeziwanye nsị nke ala dị n'ime.[13] Emebere ya ka ọ kpasasịa naanị ala dị warara dị n'okpuru ahịrị ihe ọkụkụ. N'iji ya tụnyere enweghị-till, nke na-adabere na ihe ọkụkụ nke afọ gara aga iji chebe ala ma na-enyere aka n'iyigharị nke okpomoku nke ala na ihe ọkụkụ na-eto eto na ugwu ugwu, mpaghara tillage na-emepụta warara dị ihe dị ka sentimita ise n'obosara nke na-agbajikwa ihe ọkụkụ n'otu oge. pans, na-enyere aka na-ekpo ọkụ n'ala ma na-enyere aka ịkwadebe ihe ọkụkụ.[14] Mgbe ejikọtara ya na ihe ọkụkụ na-ekpuchi, ịkụ osisi mpaghara na-enyere aka dochie ihe ndị na-abaghị uru, na-ebelata mmebi nke ala, na-eme ka mmiri na-asọpụta n'ala dịkwuo mma, na-eme ka mmiri ala na ihe ndị na-edozi ahụ dịkwuo ike, na-enye ohere ka ihe ndị dị n'ime ala dị mkpa dị ndụ.

A na-eji ya eme ihe nke ọma n'ugbo dị na Midwest na West nke USA ruo ihe karịrị afọ 40, a na-ejikwa ya eme ihe ugbu a na ihe karịrị 36% nke ala ugbo US. Ụfọdụ steeti ndị a kapịrị ọnụ ebe a na-arụ ọrụ ugbu a bụ Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Minnesota, Indiana, Wisconsin, na Illinois.

Ojiji ya na steeti Northern Corn Belt nke USA enweghị nsonaazụ na-agbanwe agbanwe; Otú ọ dị, a ka nwere mmasị n'ịkụ ugbo n'ime ọrụ ugbo.[12] N'ebe ndị a na-adịghị adọba mmiri nke ọma, enwere ike iji ọrụ ugbo dị omimi mee ihe dị ka ihe ọzọ iji wụnye mmiri dị oke ọnụ.[13]

Mmetụta

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Ubi Osikapa Ebe ngosi nka nke Ethnology nke Valencian.

Eziokwu

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Ịkọ ugbo:

  • Ọ na-agbatị ma na-eme ka ala dị n'elu ma ọ bụ horizon A, nke na-eme gore ọ dịrị mfe ịkụ ihe ọkụkụ ahụ.[14]
  • Ọ na-enyere aka ịgwakọta ihe owuwu, ihe ndị dị ndụ (humus), na ihe oriri n'otu n'ime ala.[14]
  • Ọ na-ebibi ahịhịa.[14]
  • Ọ na-eme ka ala kpọọ nkụ tupu a kụọ ya (n'oge mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ, ọrụ ugbo na-enyere aka idebe ala ka ọ kpọọ nká). [14]
  • Mgbe emere ya n'oge mgbụsị akwụkwọ, ọ na-enyere ala a na-ahụ anya aka ịcha n'oge oyi site na oyi na ice, nke na-enyere aka ịkwadebe ebe dị nro maka ịkụ osisi n'oge opupu ihe ubi.[14]
  • Enwere ike belata mmụba nke slugs, cut worms, army worms, na na-emerụ ahụ ka ha na-adọta ha site na ihe fọdụrụnụ site na ihe ọkụkụ mbụ.[15]
  • Ọ na-ebelata ihe ize ndụ nke ọrịa ihe ọkụkụ nke nwere ike ibute n'ime ihe ndị fọdụrụ n'elu.[15]
 
Onye ọrụ ugbo Kenya na-ejide ala a kụrụ akụ
  • Ọ na-eme ka ala kpọọ nkụ tupu a kụọ ya.[14]
  • Ala na-efunahụ ihe na-edozi ahụ, dị ka nitrogen na fatịlaịza, na ikike ya ichekwa mmiri.[14] [Ihe odide ala peeji ]
  • Ọ na-ebelata ọnụ ọgụgụ mmiri na-abanye n'ala. (N'ihi ya, ọ na-esite na mmiri na mbuze ka ala na-amị mmiri nke ọma karịa ka ọ dị na mbụ) [ihe odide ala ala ala 3][14][16]
  • Ịkụ ala na-eme ka ihe ndị dị n'ime ala na-agbakọta ọnụ, si otú a na-akpata mbuze.
  • Mmiri na-agbanye mmiri.[14] [Ihe odide ala peeji ]
  • Ọ na-ebelata ihe ndị dị n'ime ala.[14] [Ihe odide ala peeji ]
  • Ọ na-ebelata ụmụ ahụhụ, ụmụ ahụhụ, ndanda, wdg.[17]
  • Ọ na-ebibi ihe ndị dị n'ala.[14][17]
  • Nchịkọta nke ala, nke a makwaara dị ka pan.[14][17] [Ihe odide ala peeji]
  • Eutrophication (ihe na-edozi ahụ na-abanye n'ime mmiri). [Ihe odide ala peeji ]

Ịkụ osisi nwere ike mmebi ihe owuwu oge ochie dị ka ogologo barrows. Na UK, ọkara nke ogologo oghere dị na Gloucestershire na ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ili niile dị na Essex emebiwo. Dị ka English Heritage si kwuo na 2003, ịkọ ugbo na traktọ dị ike nke oge a emeela nnukwu mmebi n'ime afọ iri isii gara aga dịka ọrụ ugbo ọdịnala mere na narị afọ isii gara aga.[18]

Nkwupụta n'ozuzu

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  • Ụdị mmejuputa na-eme ihe kachasị dị iche, ọ bụ ezie na ihe ndị ọzọ nwere ike inwe mmetụta.[19]
  • Ịkụ n'ọchịchịrị zuru oke (ịkụ n"abalị) nwere ike belata ọnụ ọgụgụ ahịhịa na-epulite mgbe ọrụ ịkụ na-esote ọkara. Ìhè dị mkpa iji mebie ụra nke mkpụrụ ụfọdụ, yabụ ọ bụrụ na mkpụrụ ole na ole na-ekpughe ìhè n'oge usoro ịkọ ugbo, ole na ole ga-epulite. Nke a nwere ike inye aka belata oke ọgwụ ahịhịa dị mkpa maka ịchịkwa ahịhịhịa.[20]
  • Ọsọ dị elu, mgbe ị na-eji ụfọdụ ngwá ọrụ ugbo (disks na chisel plows), na-eduga n'ịkụ ugbo siri ike (ya bụ, obere ihe fọdụrụ n'elu ala).
  • Ịbawanye akụkụ nke diski na-eme ka e lie ihe ndị fọdụrụ n'ime ala. Ịbawanye concavity ha na-eme ka ha bụrụ ndị na-eme ihe ike karị.
  • Ogwe osisi Chisel nwere ike ịnwe ogwu ma ọ bụ ogwu. Spikes na-eme ihe ike karị.
  • A na-eji pasentị fọdụrụnụ iji tụnyere usoro ịkọ ugbo n'ihi na ọnụọgụ nke ihe ọkụkụ fọdụrụnụ na-emetụta ọnwụ ala n'ihi mbuze.[19][21]

Ihe ndị ọzọ

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sayensị ọrụ ugbo nke oge a ebelatawo ojiji nke ịkọ ugbo. Enwere ike ịzụlite ihe ọkụkụ ruo ọtụtụ afọ na-enweghị ọrụ ugbo ọ bụla site na iji ọgwụ herbicides iji chịkwaa ahịhịa, ụdị ihe ọkụkụ dị iche iche na-anabata ala jupụtara, na ngwá ọrụ nwere ike ịkụ mkpụrụ ma ọ bụ fumigate ala n'enweghị igwu ya n'ezie. Omume a, nke a na-akpọ ọrụ ugbo na-enweghị ọrụ ugbo, na-ebelata ọnụahịa na mgbanwe gburugburu ebe obibi site n'ibelata mbuze ala na ojiji mmanụ diesel.

Nkwadebe nke ala ọhịa

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Nkwadebe ebe bụ ọgwụgwọ ọ bụla a na-etinye na ebe iji kwadebe ya maka ịgha mkpụrụ ma ọ bụ ịkụ. Ebumnuche ya bụ ime ka ọ dịkwuo mfe imezigharị saịtị ahụ site na usoro ahọrọ. Enwere ike ime ndokwa ebe iji nweta, n'otu n'otu ma ọ bụ na njikọta ọ bụla: ohere ka mma, site na ibelata ma ọ bụ ịhazigharị slash, na imeziwanye ala ọhịa, ala, ahịhịa, ma ọ bụ ihe ndị ọzọ. A na-eme nkwadebe saịtị iji melite otu ma ọ bụ karịa ihe mgbochi nke ga-emebi ebumnuche nke njikwa. Akwụkwọ bara uru banyere mmetụta nke okpomọkụ ala na nkwadebe ebe na ụdị osisi subalpine na boreal ka McKinnon et al. (2002) kwadebere.[22]

Nkwadebe ebe bụ ọrụ a na-arụ tupu e melite mpaghara ọhịa. Ụdị ụfọdụ nke nkwadebe ebe na-ere ọkụ.

Ọkụ ọkụ

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A na-ejikarị ọkụ ọkụ na-ere ọkụ iji kwadebe ebe ndị a na-akụ maka ịkụ osisi, dịka, na etiti British Columbia, na mpaghara dị jụụ nke North America n'ozuzu.[23][24]

A na-eme ọkụ a tụrụ aro maka ibelata ihe ize ndụ na imeziwanye ọnọdụ ebe maka imezigharị; niile ma ọ bụ ụfọdụ n'ime uru ndị a nwere ike ịba ụba:

a) Mbelata nke ịgha osisi, asọmpi osisi, na humus tupu ịgha mkpụrụ, ịkụ, scarifying ma ọ bụ na-atụ anya ịgha mkpụrụ n'ụzọ okike ma ọ bụ n'ihe metụtara usoro osisi mkpụrụ.
b) Mbelata ma ọ bụ iwepụ oke ọhịa a na-achọghị tupu a kụọ ma ọ bụ kụọ ya, ma ọ bụ tupu a na-eme ka ọ dị mma.
c) Mbelata nke humus na ebe oyi, ebe mmiri na-ekpo ọkụ iji kwado mmelite.
d) Mbelata ma ọ bụ iwepụ ihe ndị na-agbawa agbawa, ahịhịa, ma ọ bụ brush na mpaghara ndị dị gburugburu ọhịa iji belata ohere nke mmebi site na ọkụ ọhịa.

A nwalere ọkụ a tụrụ aro maka ịkwadebe ebe maka ịgha mkpụrụ kpọmkwem n'oge ole na ole na Ontario, mana ọ dịghị nke ọ bụla n'ime ọkụ ahụ na-ekpo ọkụ iji mepụta ihe ndina nke zuru ezu na-enweghị nkwadebe nke ebe.[25]

Mgbanwe na ihe ndị metụtara ala na-agụnye pH dị elu, nke Macadam (1987) na mpaghara Spruce nke etiti British Columbia chọpụtara na ọ na-aga n'ihu karịa otu afọ mgbe ọkụ ahụ gasịrị.[23] Nkezi mmanụ ụgbọala bụ 20 ruo 24 t / hectare na omimi ala ọhịa belatara site na 28% ruo 36%. Mmụba ahụ jikọtara nke ọma na ọnụọgụ nke slash (ma ngụkọta ma ≥7 cm n'obosara) e riri.  Mgbanwe na pH na-adabere n'otú ọkụ ahụ siri ike na ego a na-eri; mmụba ahụ nwere ike ịbụ ihe ruru nkeji abụọ, mgbanwe okpukpu 100.[26] Enweghị ọla kọpa na ígwè n'ime akwụkwọ osisi spruce na-acha ọcha na oghere ọkụ na etiti British Columbia nwere ike ịbụ n'ihi ọkwa pH dị elu.[27]

Ọbụna ọkụ ọkụ na-agbasa ozi na clearcut anaghị enye ọkụ ọkụ n'ebe ahụ dum. Tarrant (1954), dịka ọmụmaatụ, chọpụtara na naanị 4% nke ọkụ ọkụ nke 140-ha gbara ọkụ nke ukwuu, 47% gbara ọkụ nke nta, na 49% agbaghị ọkụ.[28] Ọkụ ọkụ mgbe ifufe na-efe n'ụzọ doro anya na-eme ka ọdịiche dị iche iche na-esote pụta ìhè.

Mmụba dị ịrịba ama na calcium a na-agbanwe agbanwe nwekwara njikọ na ọnụọgụ nke slash ọ dịkarịa ala 7 cm n'obosara a na-eri.[23]  Ọnụnọ nke phosphorus mụbakwara, ma n'ala ọhịa ma na 0 cm ruo 15 cm ala mineral, mmụba ahụ ka pụtara ìhè, ọ bụ ezie na ọ belatara, ọnwa 21 mgbe ọkụ gbara.   Otú ọ dị, na nyocha ọzọ n'otu mpaghara Spruce Sub-boreal chọpụtara na ọ bụ ezie na ọ mụbara ozugbo ọkụ ahụ gasịrị, nnweta phosphorus adaala n'okpuru ọkwa ọkụ n'ime ọnwa 9.[29]

A ga-efunahụ nitrogen site na ebe ahụ site na ọkụ, ọ bụ ezie na Macadam (1987) chọpụtara na ọ dị n'ala ọhịa fọdụrụnụ mụbara na abụọ n'ime ala isii, ndị ọzọ na-egosi mbelata.[23] about="#mwt204" class="mw-ref reference" data-cx="{}" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"name":"tay"},"body":{"html":"Taylor, S.W.; Feller, M.C. 1987. Initial effects of slashburning on the nutrient status of Sub-boreal Spruce Zone ecosystems. <i id=\"mwAw8\">In</i> Papers presented at the Fire Management Symposium, April 1987, Prince George BC, Central Interior Fire Protection Committee, Smithers BC."}}' id="cite_ref-tay_37-1" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref">[./Tillage#cite_note-tay-37 [33]][30] Enwere ike ịlafu ihe oriri, ma ọ dịkarịa ala n'oge dị mkpirikpi, site na microclimate ala ka mma site na mbelata ọkpụrụkpụ nke ala ọhịa ebe okpomọkụ ala dị ala bụ ihe na-egbochi.

A na-ejikarị oke ọhịa Picea / Abys nke ala ugwu Alberta mara ya site na mkpokọta miri emi nke ihe ndị dị ndụ n'elu ala na okpomọkụ ala oyi, nke abụọ na-eme ka osisi sie ike ma na-akpata mmebi n'ozuzu na mmepụta ihe; Endean na Johnstone (1974) na-akọwa nnwale iji nwalee ọkụ a tụrụ aro dị ka ụzọ maka nkwadebe mkpụrụ na imeziwanye ebe na ebe ndị na-anọchite anya Picea / Abies.[31] Nsonaazụ gosipụtara na, n'ozuzu, ọkụ a tụrụ aro ya belataghị okpokoro anụ ahụ nke ọma, ma ọ bụ mee ka okpomọkụ ala dị elu, na ebe ndị a nwalere. Mmụba nke ntọala mkpụrụ osisi, ịdị ndụ, na uto na ebe ndị ọkụ gbara bụ ma eleghị anya n'ihi obere mbelata na omimi nke okpomọkụ ala, obere mmụba na okpomọkụ nke ala, na mmelite dị ịrịba ama na arụmọrụ nke ndị ọrụ ịkụ osisi. Nsonaazụ na-atụkwa aro na usoro mmebi nke ebe ahụ agbanwebeghị site na ọgwụgwọ ọkụ a na-etinye.

Ntinye aka na-emebi ihe

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Ibu nke okpueze ahụ dum na akụkụ nke ogwe osisi ahụ na-erughị sentimita anọ n'obosara) na nkesa nha bụ isi ihe na-emetụta ihe ize ndụ Ọkụ ọhịa na ebe a na-ewe ihe ubi.[32] Ndị na-elekọta ọhịa nwere mmasị n'itinye ọkụ ọkụ maka mbelata ihe ize ndụ na silviculture, gosipụtara usoro maka ịlele ibu ọrụ slash site na Kiil (1968). [33] N'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ nke etiti Alberta, ọ gburu, tụọ, ma tụọ 60 white spruce, graphed (a) slash weight kwa marketable unit volume megide diamita na breast ịdị elu (dbh), na (b) ịdị arọ nke ezigbo slash (<1.27 cm) megide dbh, ma mepụta tebụl nke slash weight na nha nkesa na otu acre nke a na-eche na ya bụ white spruces.  Mgbe a na-amaghị nkesa nke oghere, enwere ike inweta atụmatụ nke ịdị arọ na nkesa nha site na nkezi nke oghere oghere, ọnụ ọgụgụ osisi kwa mpaghara, na ọnụ ọgụgụ cubic ụkwụ a na-ere ere. Osisi nnwale na ọmụmụ Kiil nwere okpueze zuru oke. Osisi ndị na-eto eto nke nwere okpueze dị mkpirikpi na nke na-adịghị mma ga-abụrịrị na a ga-eleghara ya anya; osisi ndị na-emepe emepe nwere okpee ogologo ga-abụ na a ga na-eleghara ha anya.

Mkpa ọ dị inye ndò maka ụmụ osisi Engelmann spruce na Ugwu Rocky dị elu ka U.S. Forest Service kwusiri ike. A na-akọwa ebe a na-akụ osisi dị ka microsites n'akụkụ ugwu na n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke osisi, ogwe osisi, ma ọ bụ slash, ma dina n'okpuru onyinyo nke ihe dị otú ahụ.[34] Ebe ebumnuche nke njikwa na-akọwapụta otu oghere, ma ọ bụ ọnụ ọgụgụ dị elu, karịa nke a na-enweta site na nkesa dị ugbu a nke ihe na-enye ndò, a na-ekesa ma ọ bụ mbubata nke ihe dị otú ahụ.

Ịga

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Enwere ike ime nkwadebe ebe na saịtị ụfọdụ iji mee ka ndị na-akụ osisi nwee ike ịnweta ya, ma ọ bụ iji melite ohere ma mụbaa ọnụ ọgụgụ ma ọ bụ nkesa nke microsites dabara adaba maka ịkụ ma ọ bụ ịkụ mkpụrụ.

Wang et al. (2000) kpebiri ịrụ ọrụ n'ọhịa nke spruces ọcha na oji afọ 8 na 9 mgbe a kụrụ ya n'ebe ndị a na-agwakọta osisi na-esote nkwadebe ebe (Donaren disc trenching na enweghị trenching) na ụdị osisi 2 (meghe na ndị zoro ezo) na ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ Manitoba.[35] Donaren trenching belatara ọnwụ nke black spruce ma mee ka ọnwụ nke white spruce dịkwuo ukwuu. A chọtara ọdịiche dị ịrịba ama n'ịdị elu n'etiti ubi ndị mepere emepe na ndị zoro ezo maka spruce ojii mana ọ bụghị maka spruces ọcha, na dayameta mgbọrọgwụ na ubi ndị zoro ezo buru ibu karịa na ubi ndị mebiri emepe maka spruze ojii mana ọ bụ maka spruza ọcha. Black spruce open plantation nwere obere olu (97 cm3) ma e jiri ya tụnyere black spruce sheltered (210 cm3), yana white spruce ghere oghe (175 cm3) na sheltered plantations (229 cm3).     Ubi osisi White spruce nwekwara obere ọnụ ọgụgụ karịa ubi osisi White sprus. Maka ihe ọkụkụ, osisi ndị a na-akụ n'ala nwere oke dị elu (3 cm3) karịa osisi ndị a kụrụ n'ala (204 cm3).   Wang et al. (2000) tụrụ aro na a ga-eji nkwadebe ebe a na-akụ ihe ubi.[35]

Injinia

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Ruo n'afọ 1970, ọ dịghị ihe eji eme ihe "dị mgbagwoju anya" nke na-arụ ọrụ na Ontario, mana a na-aghọtawanye mkpa maka ngwá ọrụ dị irè na nke na-agbanwe agbanwe.[36] Ka ọ na-erule n'oge a, a na-emeziwanye ngwá ọrụ ndị ọrụ ubi mepụtara na mbụ, na nnwale nke ngwá ọrụ sitere na isi mmalite ndị ọzọ na-abawanye.

Dị ka J. Hall si kwuo (1970), na Ontario ma ọ dịkarịa ala, usoro nkwadebe ebe a na-ejikarị eme ihe bụ scarification na-arụ ọrụ mgbe owuwe ihe ubi gasịrị site na ngwá ọrụ a na-etinye n'ihu bulldozer (blade, rake, V-plow, ma ọ bụ ezé), ma ọ bụ na-adọkpụ n'azụ traktọ (Imsett ma ọ bụ S.F. scarifier, ma ọ bụrụ chopper na-agbagharị).[36] Ụdị drag nke Ngalaba Na-ahụ Maka Ala na Ọhịa nke Ontario mepụtara ma wuo jiri eriri ma ọ bụ tractor pads iche ma ọ bụ na njikọta, ma ọ bụ bụ bụ drum ma ọ bụ barrels nke nha dị iche iche ma jiri ya mee ihe naanị ma ọ bụ jikọta ya na tractor pad ma ọ bụ eriri.

Akụkọ J. Hall (1970) [36] banyere ọnọdụ nkwadebe ebe na Ontario kwuru na a chọpụtara na blades na rakes dị mma maka scarification na-eguzogide osisi siri ike maka mmelite nke osisi na-acha odo odo. Ogwe osisi dị irè karịa maka ịgwọ brush buru ibu tupu a kụọ ya, mgbe mgbe na igwe kụọ ya. A na-eji ezé scarifying, dịka, ezé Young, eme ihe mgbe ụfọdụ iji kwadebe ebe maka ịkụ osisi, mana a chọpụtara na ojiji ha kachasị dị irè bụ ịkwadebe ebe maka ịgha mkpụrụ, ọkachasị n'ebe ndị nwere obere brọsh na nnukwu ahịhịa. Ndị na-agbagharị na-achọ ọrụ n'ịgwọ brọsh dị arọ mana enwere ike iji ya mee ihe naanị na ala na-enweghị nkume. A na-ejikarị ịgbà ndị a na-akpọ Finned mee ihe na jack pine-spruce cutovers na ebe ndị a na'ụdị brushy ọhụrụ nwere okpokoro miri emi na slash dị arọ, ọ dịkwa ha mkpa ka ha jikọta ya na tractor pad unit iji nweta nkesa dị mma nke slash. S.F.I. scarifier, mgbe ọ gbasiri ike, enweela "ihe ịga nke ọma" ruo afọ 2, nnwale ndị na-ekwe nkwa na-aga n'ihu na cone scarifier na barrel ring scarifier. Nkwado nke mkpa ọ dị ịbawanye nke ọma na ịdị irè na nkwadebe ebe mere ka Ngalaba Na-ahụ Maka Ala na Ọhịa nke Ontario nabata iwu nke ịchọ na inweta maka nyocha ngwá ọrụ ọhụrụ site na Scandinavia na ebe ndị ọzọ nke yiri ka ọ na-ekwe nkwa maka ọnọdụ Ontario, karịsịa n'ebe ugwu. Ya mere, a malitere nnwale nke Brackekultivator sitere na Sweden na Vako-Visko rotary furrower sitere na Finland.

Ịrịgo

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Usoro ọgwụgwọ nke na-emepụta ebe a na-akụ osisi dị elu emeela ka arụmọrụ nke osisi dị mma na ebe ndị nwere okpomọkụ ala dị ala na mmiri dị ukwuu. N'ezie, ịrị elu nwere ike inwe mmetụta dị ukwuu na okpomọkụ ala. Draper et al. (1985), dịka ọmụmaatụ, dere nke a yana mmetụta ọ nwere na uto mgbọrọgwụ nke osisi (Table 30).[37]

Ugwu ndị ahụ na-ekpo ọkụ ngwa ngwa, na omimi ala nke 0.5 cm na 10 cm nkezi 10 na 7 °C elu, n'otu n'otu, karịa na njikwa.    N'ụbọchị anwụ na-achasi ike, okpomọkụ kachasị elu n'elu ugwu na ihe ndị dị ndụ ruru 25 °C ruo 60 °C, dabere na mmiri na onyinyo ala.   Ugwu ruru okpomọkụ ala nke 10 °C na 10 cm omimi ụbọchị 5 mgbe a kụrụ ya, mana njikwa ahụ erughị okpomọkụ ahụ ruo ụbọchị 58 mgbe a kụsịrị ya.   N'oge mbụ na-eto eto, ugwu nwere okpukpu atọ karịa ụbọchị na okpomọkụ ala karịrị 10 °C karịa microsites. 

Draper et al.'s (1985)[41] mkpọta enwetara ugboro 5 karịa ọnụọgụ fotosynthetically na-arụ ọrụ radieshon (PAR) gbakọtara n'elu microsites niile egosipụtara n'oge oge ntolite mbụ; ọgwụgwọ njikwa ahụ na-anatakarị ihe dịka 14% nke ndabere PAR kwa ụbọchị, ebe mkpọta enwetara ihe karịrị 70%. Site na Nọvemba, ọdịda frosts ama belatara shading, na-ewepụ ihe dị iche iche. Ewezuga mmetụta ọ na-enwe na okpomọkụ, radieshon merenụ dịkwa mkpa na foto synthetically. A na-ekpughere nkezi microsite na-achịkwa n'ọkwa ọkụ dị n'elu ebe a na-akwụ ụgwọ maka naanị awa 3, ya bụ, otu ụzọ n'ụzọ anọ nke oge ọkụ kwa ụbọchị, ebe mounds nwetara ìhè n'elu ebe nkwụghachi ụgwọ maka awa 11, ya bụ, 86% nke otu ụbọchị. oge. N'iburu n'uche na ọkụ ahụ merenụ na 100-600 μE/m2/s ike nso bụ ihe kacha mkpa maka photosynthesis, mounds nwetara ihe karịrị 4 ugboro n'ikuku ume ọkụ kwa ụbọchị nke ruru microsites njikwa.

Ntọala nke nkwadebe ebe

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Site na nkwadebe saịtị ahịrị, a na-ekpebi nghazi mgbe ụfọdụ site na topography ma ọ bụ echiche ndị ọzọ, mana enwere ike họrọ nghazi ahụ. Ọ nwere ike ime mgbanwe. Nnwale diski-trenching na Sub-boreal Spruce Mpaghara dị n'ime ime British Columbia nyochara mmetụta na uto nke ihe ọkụkụ na-eto eto (lodgepole pine) na ọnọdụ akuku microsite 13: berm, hinge, na tren na nke ọ bụla n'ebe ugwu, ndịda, ọwụwa anyanwụ, na akụkụ ọdịda anyanwụ, yana n'ebe a na-agwọghị ya n'etiti furrows.[42] Mpịakọta osisi dị n'afọ nke iri dị na ndịda-, ọwụwa anyanwụ- na n'ọdịda anyanwụ microsites dị nnọọ ukwuu karịa nke osisi ndị dị n'ebe ugwu na-eche ihu na microsites na-adịghị agwọ ọrịa. Agbanyeghị, a hụrụ nhọpụta ntụpọ ihe ọkụkụ ka ọ dị mkpa n'ozuzu ya karịa ntụgharị trenchi

N'ime ọmụmụ ihe Minnesota, ibe N-S na-akwakọba snow mana snow gbazere ngwa ngwa karịa na ibe E-W n'afọ mbụ mgbe ọ dachara.[43] Mmiri na-agbaze na-agbaze ngwa ngwa n'ibe dị nso n'etiti ebe ahụ mebiri emebi karịa n'ibe oke nke dị n'akụkụ ebe a na-edebe ihe adịghị mma. Iberibe ndị ahụ, nke dị ụkwụ 50 (15.24 m) n'obosara, na-atụgharị na ibe ndị a na-egbutubeghị 16 ụkwụ (4.88 m) n'obosara, bụ ndị a dara na nkwụ Pinus resinosa, nke dị afọ 90 ruo 100.

Hụkwa

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  • Ịgha mkpụrụ tupu oge eruo
  • Mmepe ala
  • Mmiri kacha mma maka ịkọ ugbo
  • Nkwadebe nke ebe
  • Omume nchịkwa soybean
  • SWEEP (usoro ihe omume mmụba gburugburu ebe obibi na ala)
  • TERON (Oké mbuze)
  • Mgbukpọ nke ala

Ihe edeturu

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  1. ↑ Estienne (1564). "CHAP. IIII.", Maison rustique, or The countrey farme· Compyled in the French tongue by Charles Steuens, and Iohn Liebault, Doctors of Physicke. And translated into English by Richard Surflet, practitioner in physicke. Now newly reuiewed, corrected, and augmented, with diuers large additions, out of the works of Serres his Agriculture, Vinet his Maison champestre, French. Albyterio in Spanish, Grilli in Italian; and other authors. And the husbandrie of France, Italie, and Spaine, reconciled and made to agree with ours here in England: by Geruase Markham. The whole contents are in the page following (in en), 11. 
  2. ↑ History of tillage and tillage research. University of Minnesota Extension.
  3. ↑ Indoria (2017). "Conservation agriculture – a panacea to improve soil physical health". Current Science 112 (1). DOI:10.18520/cs/v112/i01/52-61. 
  4. ↑ History of tillage and tillage research. University of Minnesota Extension.
  5. ↑ Stillerman (2019). "Safeguarding Soil: A Smart Way to Protect Farmers, Taxpayers, and the Future of Our Food". 
  6. ↑ Types of tillage. Knowledge Bank. Retrieved on 24 February 2019.
  7. ↑ CONSERVATION TILLAGE IN THE UNITED STATES: AN OVERVIEW. okstate.edu. Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska – Lincoln. Retrieved on 8 July 2013.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 National Crop Residue Management (CRM) Survey Summary (various years). ctic.purdue.edu. Conservation Technology Information Center. Archived from the original on 2018-07-14. Retrieved on 2024-08-12.
  9. ↑ Horton (2019-12-06). Reduced soil tilling helps both soils and yields (en). Stanford News. Retrieved on 2019-12-08.
  10. ↑ Strip Till for Field Crop Production. Ag.ndsu.edu (2012-11-14). Archived from the original on 2011-04-05. Retrieved on 2012-12-20.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Best Management Practices for Conservation/Reduced Tillage. Texas Cooperative Extension, The Texas A&M University System. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014.
  12. ↑ [1], "Fall Zone Tillage Conserves Soil, Yields Well", 1999.
  13. ↑ [2], DeJong-Hughes, J. Johnson, J. Plant Management Network. 2009.
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 Ray Hilborn. Soils in Agriculture (PPT—available as non-PPT by searching the path through a search engine). University of Washington. Archived from the original on 2015-01-12. Retrieved on 2013-08-28.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Dr. Tarlok Singh Sahota CCA (September 2008). Alternative tillage systems to save time and fuel*. Archived from the original on 2013-11-16. Retrieved on 2018-06-20.
  16. ↑ Gebhardt_et_al. 1985
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Soil Compaction and Conservation Tillage. Conservation Tillage Series. PennState – College of Agricultural Sciences – Cooperative Extension. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved on 26 March 2011.
  18. ↑ "Ripping Up History" July 2003 English Heritage
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Conservation Tillage and Residue Management to Reduce Soil Erosion University of Missouri: Extension
  20. ↑ Nightmare in Tilling Fields – a Horror for Weed Pests. Ars.usda.gov. Retrieved on 2012-07-05.
  21. ↑ Mahdi Al-Kaisi (13 May 2002). Methods for measuring crop residue. Iowa State University. Retrieved on 2012-12-28.
  22. ↑ McKinnon, L.M.; Mitchell, A.K.; Vyse, A. 2002. The effects of soil temperature and site preparation on subalpine and boreal tree species: a bibliography. Nat. Resour., Can., Can. For. Serv., Victoria BC, Inf. Rep. BC-X-394. 29 p.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Macadam, A.M. 1987. Effects of broadcast slash burning on fuels and soil chemical properties in the sub-boreal spruce zone of central British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 17(12):1577–1584.
  24. ↑ Kiil (1970-12-01). "Prescribed Fire — Its Place in Reforestation" (in en). The Forestry Chronicle 46 (6): 448–451. DOI:10.5558/tfc46448-6. ISSN 0015-7546. 
  25. ↑ Scott (1970-12-01). "Direct Seeding in Ontario" (in en). The Forestry Chronicle 46 (6): 453–457. DOI:10.5558/tfc46453-6. ISSN 0015-7546. 
  26. ↑ Holt, L. 1955. White spruce seedbeds as related to natural regeneration. Pulp Paper Res. Instit. Can., Montreal QC. 28 p.
  27. ↑ Ballard, T.M. 1985. Spruce nutrition problems in the central interior and their relationship with site preparation. Proc. Interior spruce seedling performance: state of the art Symposium. Northern Silviculture Committee Workshop, Feb. 1985, Prince George BC.
  28. ↑ Tarrant, R.F. 1954. Effect of slash burning on soil pH. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific Northwest For. and Range Exp. Sta., Portland OR, Res. Note 102. 5 p.
  29. ↑ Taylor, S.W.; Feller, M.C. 1987. Initial effects of slashburning on the nutrient status of Sub-boreal Spruce Zone ecosystems. In Papers presented at the Fire Management Symposium, April 1987, Prince George BC, Central Interior Fire Protection Committee, Smithers BC.
  30. ↑ Little, S.N.; Klock, G.O. 1985. The influence of residue removal and prescribed fire on distribution of forest nutrients. USDA, For. Serv., Res. Pap. PNW-333.
  31. ↑ Endean, F.; Johnstone, W.D. 1974. Prescribed fire and regeneration on clearcut spruce–fir sites in the foothills of Alberta. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv., Northern For. Res. Centre, Edmonton AB, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-126. 33 p.
  32. ↑ Kiil (1965-12-01). "Weight and Size Distribution of Slash of White Spruce and Lodgepole Pine" (in en). The Forestry Chronicle 41 (4): 432–437. DOI:10.5558/tfc41432-4. ISSN 0015-7546. 
  33. ↑ Kiil, A.D. 1968. Weight of the fuel complex in 70-year-old lodgepole pine stands of different densities. Department of Forestry and Rural Development, Forest Research Laboratory, Calgary, Alberta. Departmental Publication 1228. 13 p.
  34. ↑ Ronco, F. 1975. Diagnosis: sunburned trees. J. For. 73(1):31–35. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Wang (2000-10-01). "Survival and growth of black and white spruce seedlings in relation to stock type, site preparation and plantation type in southeastern Manitoba" (in en). The Forestry Chronicle 76 (5): 775–782. DOI:10.5558/tfc76775-5. ISSN 0015-7546. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Hall, J. 1970. Site preparation in Ontario. For. Chron. 46:445–447.
  37. ↑ Draper, D.; Binder, W.; Fahlman, R.; Spittlehouse, D. 1985. Post-planting ecophysiology of Interior spruce. Interior Spruce Seedling Performance: State of the Art. Northern Silvic. Committee, Prince George BC. 18 p. (mimeo).
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