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Usoro ide ihe

Usoro ederede bụ usoro nke anya na-anọchi anya nzikọrịta ozi ọnụ, dabere na edemede na usoro iwu na-achịkwa ojiji ya. .

Ọ bụ ezie na ma ederede ma okwu bara uru na-eziga ozi, ederede dị iche na ịbụ ụdị nchekwa na nnyefe ozi a pụrụ ịdabere na ya. Usoro ide ihe chọrọ nghọta dị n'etiti ndị edemede na ndị na-agụ ihe ọ pụtara n'azụ Ihe odide ndị mejupụtara edemede. Enweghị nghọta nke abụọ banyere ihe ederede na ịgụ ihe (site na ihe ndị dị ka ịgụ na ide, nghọta ịgụ, transliteration, na ntụgharị), usoro ederede nwere ike ịghọ ihe na-abaghị uru. A na-edekarị ederede na ihe na-adịgide adịgide, dị ka akwụkwọ ma ọ bụ Nchekwa eletrọniki, ọ bụ ezie na enwere ike iji usoro ndị na-adịghị adịgide adịgide mee ihe, dị ka ide na ngosipụta kọmputa, na bọọdụ ojii, na ájá, ma ọ bụ site na ederede igwe. Ịgụ ederede nwere ike imezu n'uche dị ka usoro dị n'ime, ma ọ bụ kwuo ya n'ọnụ.

Enwere ike itinye usoro edemede n'ụdị sara mbara dị ka mkpụrụedemede, syllabaries, ma ọ bụ akara ngosi, n'agbanyeghị na usoro ọ bụla nwere ike ịnwe njiri mara ihe karịrị otu ụdị. Na ngalaba mkpụrụedemede, otu mkpụrụedemede ọkọlọtọ na-anọchi anya ụda okwu. Na syllabary, akara ọ bụla na-ejikọta ya na syllable ma ọ bụ mora. N'ime ihe ndekọ ederede, agwa ọ bụla na-anọchi anya nkeji ọmụmụ dị ka okwu ma ọ bụ morpheme. Abjads dị iche na mkpụrụedemede n'ihi na anaghị egosi ụdaume, na na abugidas ma ọ bụ alphasyllabaries agwa ọ bụla na-anọchi anya mgbanaka-ụdaume.

Alphabets na-ejikarị akara nke na-erughị 100 akara iji kwupụta asụsụ nke ọma, ebe syllabaries nwere ike inwe ọtụtụ narị, na akara ngosi nwere ike ịnwe puku kwuru puku akara Ọtụtụ usoro ederede gụnyekwara akara ngosi pụrụ iche nke a maara dị ka akara edemede nke a na-eji enyere nkọwa aka ma nyere aka weghara nuances na ọdịiche dị na nkọwa ozi ahụ bụagwara okwu ọnụ site na ntule oge, ụda, ụda olu, inflection ma ọ bụ ntinye okwu.

Tupu usoro edemede bu ụzọ e si ede ihe, bụ nke ji eserese, ideogram na akara mnemonic ndị ọzọ. Proto-ede enweghị ike ijide na kwupụta oke echiche na echiche zuru oke.Nrụpụta nke usoro ederede, nke malitere na mmalite nke Bronze Age na njedebe Neolithic Era nke ngwụcha narị afọ nke anọ BC, nyere aka ndekọ ndekọ akụkọ ihe mere eme mmadụ ziri ezin'ụzọ na-adịghị enwe ike ịnweta otu ụdị njehie nke akụkọ ihe mere eme ọnụ na-adịghị ike. N'oge na-adịghị anya ka e mesịrị, ederede nyere ụdị nkwurịta okwu dị anya nke a pụrụ ịdabere na ya. Na ọbịbịa nke mbipụta, o nyere ụzọ maka mmalite ụdị nzikọrịta ozi n'ọha.

Ihe osise ndị China (hànzì, 漢字) bụ morpho-syllabic. Nke ọ bụla na-anọchite anya mkpụrụedemede nwere ihe dị iche, mana ụfọdụ mkpụrụedemede nwekwara ike inwe ọtụtụ ihe ma ọ bụ ịkpọpụta.

A na-ekewa usoro ederede site na usoro Nkwurịta okwu ihe atụ ndị ọzọ nwere ike ịbụ na usoro ederede na-ejikọta ya na ọ dịkarịa ala otu Asụsụ a na-asụ. N'ụzọ dị iche, ihe ngosi anya dị ka eserese, ihe osise, na ihe ndị na-abụghị okwu na map, dị ka akara contour, enweghị njikọ asụsụ. Ụfọdụ akara na akara ozi, dị ka akara maka nwoke na nwanyị, enweghị njikọ asụsụ, mana ha nwere ike ịghọ akụkụ nke asụsụ ma ọ bụrụ na ejiri ha na ihe ndị ọzọ metụtara asụsụ. Ụfọdụ akara ndị ọzọ, dị ka ọnụọgụ na ampersand, anaghị ejikọta ya na asụsụ ọ bụla, mana a na-ejikarị ya ede ihe ma ya mere a ga-ewere ya dịka akụkụ nke usoro ederede.

Obodo mmadụ ọ bụla nwere asụsụ, nke ọtụtụ ndị na-ewere dị ka ọnọdụ ebumpụta ụwa na nke na-akọwa ihe a kpọrọ mmadụ. Otú ọ dị, mmepe nke usoro ederede, na usoro nke ha ji dochie usoro nkwurịta okwu ọdịnala, abụwo nke na-adịghị mma, nke na-ahaghị nhata na nke na-egbu oge. Ozugbo e guzobere, usoro ederede na-agbanwekarị nwayọ karịa ndị yiri ha. Mgbanwe na mgbanwe ndị a ogologo oge nwere ike ịgbanwe site na afọ iri. N'ihi ya, ha na-echekwa ihe na okwu ndị na-adịghịzi n'asụsụ a na-asụ. Otu n'ime nnukwu uru nke usoro ederede bụ na ha nwere ike ichekwa ndekọ na-adịgide adịgide nke ozi egosiri n'asụsụ.

Usoro edemede niile chọrọ:

  • ma ọ dịkarịa ala otu usoro nke ihe ndị a kapịrị ọnụ ma ọ bụ akara, nke a na-akpọ akara n'otu n'otu ma na-akpọ ya edemede.[1]
  • ma ọ dịkarịa ala otu usoro iwu na mgbakọ (orthography) nke otu obodo ghọtara ma kesaa, nke na-enye ihe ndị bụ isi (graphemes) pụtara, nhazi ha na mmekọrịta ha na ibe ha.
  • ma ọ dịkarịa ala otu asụsụ (nke a na-asụkarị) nke a na-anọchite anya ihe owuwu ya ma nwee ike icheta ya site na nkọwa nke ihe ndị a na iwu ndị a.
  • ụfọdụ ụzọ anụ ahụ nke na-anọchite anya Ọkara ndị ahụ n'ụzọ doro anya site na itinye ya na ihe na-adịgide adịgide ma ọ bụ nke na-adịru mgbe niile, yabụ enwere ike ịkọwa ha (na-ahụkarị, mana emeela usoro mmetụ aka).

Okwu ndị bụ isi

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Ihe atụ nke ụdị na ụdị, nke William Caslon, onye guzobere akwụkwọ ozi; site na Cyclopaedia nke afọ 1728.

Na nyocha nke edemede nke onye ọ bụla, ọmụmụ nke usoro ederede amalitela n'akụkụ ahịrị nwere onwe. Ya mere, okwu okwu eji arụ ọrụ dị iche site na mpaghara gaa n'ọgbọ.

Ihe odide, ide, ịgụ na orthography

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Okwu ederede na-ezo aka n'ihe odide edere ma ọ bụ nke a na-ekwu okwu na nke mbụ ka edere n'ụzọ ụfọdụ. [2]Enwere ike ịkpọ omume nke ide na idekọ ederede dị ka ederede, na omume nke ile anya na ịkọwa ederede dị ka ịgụ. [3][4]Orthography na-ezo aka na usoro na iwu nke usoro ederede a na-ahụ anya (ihe ọ pụtara n'ụzọ nkịtị, "ihe odide ziri ezi"), na karịsịa maka usoro mkpụrụ akwụkwọ, gụnyere echiche nke mkpụrụedemede.

Grapheme na phoneme

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A grapheme bụ otu isi nke usoro ederede. Ha bụ ihe nke dị obere nke a chịkọtara ọnụ mejupụtara usoro "ihe owuwu" nke enwere ike ịmepụta ederede nke otu ma ọ bụ karịa usoro ederede, yana iwu nke akwụkwọ ozi na ojiji. Echiche a yiri nke foneme eji eme ihe na ọmụmụ asụsụ a na-asụ. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, na usoro ederede nke Latịn nke Bekee nke oge a, ihe atụ nke graphemes gụnyere ụdị mkpụrụedemede na obere nke mkpụrụedemede iri abụọ na isii (nke kwekọrọ na fonemes dị iche iche), akara aka akara (nke na-abụghị phonemic), na akara ndị ọzọ ole na ole dịka ndị maka nọmba (logograms maka nọmba).

Enwere ike ịnọchite anya otu grapheme n'ụzọ dịgasị iche iche, ebe ọdịiche ọ bụla dị iche iche n'ụzọ ụfọdụ, mana a na-akọwa ha niile dị ka ndị na-anọchite anya "otu" grapheme. A maara ọdịiche ndị a dị ka allographs nke grapheme (iji ya tụnyere okwu allophone eji eme ihe na ọmụmụ asụsụ). Dịka ọmụmaatụ, obere mkpụrụedemede a nwere allographs dị iche iche mgbe edere ya dị ka mkpụrụedemede, blọk, ma ọ bụ mkpụrụedemede. Nhọrọ nke otu allograph nwere ike imetụta site na ihe eji eme ihe, ngwá ọrụ ederede, nhọrọ ederede aka onye edemede, ihe ndị bu ụzọ na ndị na-esote na ederede, oge dị maka ide, ndị na-ege ntị, na ihe ndị na-amaghị nke ederede mmadụ.

Ihe odide, akara na agwa

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A na-eji okwu glyph, akara na agwa mgbe ụfọdụ na-ezo aka na grapheme. Ojiji a na-ejikarị dị iche iche site na ịdọ aka ná ntị ruo n'ọzụzụ; tulee akara cuneiform, Maya glyph, agwa ndị China. Ihe odide nke ọtụtụ usoro ederede bụ nke ahịrị (ma ọ bụ strok) ya mere a na-akpọ ya linear, ma e nwere glyphs na usoro ederede na-abụghị linear nke nwere ụdị akara ndị ọzọ.dị ka Cuneiform na Braille.

Usoro ederede zuru ezu na nkebi

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.Enwere ike ịhụ usoro edemede dị ka nke zuru oke dabere n'ókè ha nwere ike ịnọchite anya ihe niile enwere ike ịkọwa n'asụsụ a na-asụ.ebe usoro ide ihe na-akpachapụ anya n'ihe ọ nwere ike ibuga. [5]

Usoro edemede, asụsụ na usoro echiche

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Usoro edemede nwere ike ịnwe onwe ya na asụsụ, mmadụ nwere ike ịnata ọtụtụ usoro edemede maka asụsụ, dịka, Hindustani; na mmadụ nwekwara ike ịnwe otu usoro edemede iji ọtụtụ asụsụ, dịka ọmụmaatụ, edemede Arabic. [6]Mba ndị ọzọ gbazitere mkpụrụedemede Chinese dị ka Usoro edemede mbụ ha, dịka, usoro edemede mmalite nke Asụsụ Vietnamese ruo mmalite nke narị afọ nke 20.

Iji nọchite anya usoro echiche, mmadụ na-eji otu asụsụ ma ọ bụ karịa, dịka ọmụmaatụ, mgbakọ na mwepụ bụ usoro echiche[1] na mmadụ nwere ike iji mgbagha nke mbụ na asụsụ okike ọnụ na nnọchite anya.[7]

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Ọganihu e jiri ya tụnyere site na pictograms gaa n'ụdị abstract, na cuneiforms Mesopotamian, hieroglyphs Ndị Ijipt na mkpụrụedemede Chinese.

Tupu usoro edemede tupu e jiri ya dee proto-ede, usoro nke ideographic na/ma ọ bụ akara mnemonic mmalite. Ọmụmaatụ kacha mara amara bụ:

  • "Token system", a recording system used for accounting purposes in Mesopotamia c. 9000 BC
  • Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BC
  • Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BC
  • Proto-Cuneiform c. 3500 BC
  • Possibly the early Indus script, c. 3500 BC, as its nature is disputed[8] 
  • Nsibidi script, c. before 500 AD 

Nmepụta nke usoro edemede mbụ bụ ihe dị ka oge na mmalite nke Oge Ọcha (na-esote ngwụcha Neolithic) na ngwụcha puku afọ nke anọ BC. A na-ewere Ihe odide cuneiform Ndị Sumerian ochie nke ndị na-esochi nke ọma site na hieroglyphs nke Ijipt dị ka usoro ederede mbụ, ha abụọ na-apụta site na usoro akara akara nna ha site na 3400 ruo 3200 BC na ederede mbụ kwekọrọ ekwekọ site na ihe dị ka 2600 BC. A na-ekwenye n'ozuzu na ederede Sumerian nke mbụ bụ ihe e chepụtara n'onwe ya nakwa n'oge gara aga ka e kwenyere na ndị Ijipt amụtala echiche nke ide ihe n'aka ndị Sumerian mana ugbu a, a na-ekwere na usoro edemede ha bụ ihe e mepụtara n'otu n'otu[9]

Arụmụka yiri nke ahụ dị maka edemede Chinese, nke mepụtara n'ihe dị ka 1200 BC. [10][11]O yikarịrị ka ihe odide ndị China bụ ihe e mepụtara n'onwe ya, n'ihi na enweghị ihe akaebe nke mmekọrịta dị n'etiti China na mmepeanya ndị gụrụ akwụkwọ nke Near East, yana n'ihi ọdịiche dị n'agbata Mesopotamian na Chinese na logography na nnọchite anya phonetic.[12][13]

Usoro ederede Mesoamerican tupu Colombia (gụnyere n'etiti ndị ọzọ Olmec na edemede Maya) na-abụkarịkwenyere na o sitere na onwe ya .

A na-eche na usoro odide ihe odide nke Mi'kmaq tupu oge ọchịchị ji mee ihe, bụ́ nke ndị ozi ala ọzọ hụrụ malite na narị afọ nke 17 ruo 19, malitere n'onwe ya. Enwere ụfọdụ arụmụka maka ma nke a bụ usoro zuru oke ma ọ bụ na ọ bụghị naanị usoro eserese mnemonic.

A na-eche na odide mkpụrụedemede consonantal mbụ pụtara tupu afọ 2000 BC, dịka ihe nnọchianya nke asụsụ ndị agbụrụ Semitic mepụtara na Saịnaị Peninsula (lee History of the Alphabet).Ọtụtụ mkpụrụedemede ndị ọzọ dị n'ụwa taa sitere n'otu ihe ọhụrụ a, ọtụtụ n'ime ha sitere na mkpụrụ akwụkwọ Finishia, ma ọ bụ bụrụ ndị sitere na nhazi ya.

Ezi mkpụrụ akwụkwọ mbụ bụ mkpụrụedemede Greek nke na-anọchi anya ụdaume kemgbe 800 BC. [14]Mkpụrụedemede Latịn, nke sitere n'usoro ọmụmụ, bụ usoro ederede a na-ejikarị eme ihe.

Nchịkọta ọrụ

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Tebụl nke edemede na mmeghe nke Sanskrit-English Dictionary nke Monier Monier-Williams.
 
Akwụkwọ nkuzi a maka Puyi na-egosi Mkpụrụ akwụkwọ Bekee. Ọ bụ ezie na mkpụrụedemede Bekee na-aga site n'aka ekpe gaa n'aka nri, nkọwa ndị China na-agafe site n'elu gaa n'ala wee gaa n'ihu site n'akatọ gaa n'akụzi, dịka edere ya.

E meela ọtụtụ ụzọ iji kewaa usoro ederede, nke kachasị na nke bụ isi bụ nkewa sara mbara n'ime ụdị atọ: logographic, syllabic, na alphabetic (ma ọ bụ segmental); Otú ọ dị, enwere ike ịchọta ha atọ na usoro ederede ọ bụla n'ụdị dịgasị iche iche, na-emekarị ka o sie ike ịkọwa usoro n'ụzọ pụrụ iche. A na-eji okwu ahụ dị mgbagwoju anya eme ihe mgbe ụfọdụ iji kọwaa ndị ebe ngwakọta ahụ na-eme ka nkewa bụrụ nsogbu. Ndị ọkà mmụta asụsụ nke oge a na-ele ụzọ ndị dị otú ahụ anya, gụnyere nke Diringer[15]

  • Ihe odide ihe osise
  • Ihe odide ideographic
  • edemede mgbanwe
  • mkpụrụedemede
  • mkpụrụedemede

dị ka oke mfe, na-atụlekarị edemede ka enweghị atụ. Hill kewara ederede gaa n'ụdị atọ dị mkpa nke nyocha asụsụ, nke otu n'ime ha na-ekpuchi okwu na anaghị adịkarị weere ide ihe kwesịrị ekwesị:[16]

  • usoro okwu
    • usoro okwu ihe ngosi, dịka AmerindianNdị Amerindian
    • usoro okwu omenala, dịka Quipu
  • usoro ederede morphemic, dịka Egyptian, Sumerian, Maya, Chinese, Anatolian HieroglyphsIhe odide ndị dị n'Anatolia
  • Usoro ederede fonemi
    • akụkụ nke usoro ederede fonem, dịka Egyptian, Hebrew, Arabic
    • Usoro ederede poly-phonemic, dịka Linear B, Kana, Cherokee
    • Usoro ederede mono-phonemic
      • Usoro ederede fonemi, dịka Grik oge ochie, Old EnglishBekee Ochie
      • Usoro ederede morpho-phonemic, dịka German, Modern EnglishBekee nke Oge A

Sampson na-eme ka ọdịiche dị n'etiti semasiography na glottography:

  • semasiography, na-ejikọta akara ndị a na-ahụ anya na ihe ọ pụtara n'onwe ya n'ejighị asụsụ ọ bụla a na-asụ.
  • glottography, na-eji akara ndị a na-ahụ anya na-anọchite anya ụdị asụsụ a na-asụ
    • logography, na-anọchite anya asụsụ a na-asụ site n'inye akara ndị a na-ahụ anya na ihe ndị dị na asụsụ nke André Martinet's "first articulation" (Martinet 1949), ya bụ morphemes ma ọ bụ okwu
    • phonography, na-enweta otu ebumnuche ahụ site n'inye akara na ihe ndị dị na "okwu nke abụọ", dịka phonemes, mkpụrụedemede

DeFrancis, na-akatọ iwebata Sampson nke edemede semasiographic na mkpụrụedemede featural na-ekwusi ike na àgwà phonographic nke ederede n'ụzọ ziri ezi[17][18]

  • foto
    • enweghị ederede
    • ide ihe
      • rebus
        • usoro syllabic
          • mkpụrụ okwu dị ọcha, dịka Linear B, Yi, Kana, Cherokee
          • morpho-syllabic, dịka Sumerian, Chinese, Mayan
          • ụdaume
            • morpho-consonantal, dịka Egyptian
            • ụdaume dị ọcha, dịka Phoenician
            • mkpụrụ akwụkwọ
              • ụdaume dị ọcha, dịka Grik
              • morpho-phonemic, dịka Bekee

Faber kewara ederede phonographic site na ọkwa abụọ, linearity na koodu:[19]

  • logographic, dịka Chinese, Ancient EgyptianIjipt oge ochie
  • phonographic
    • syllabically linear
      • syllabically coded, dịka Kana, Akkadian
      • nkebi, dịka Hibru, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopian, Amharic, Devanagari
    • akụkụ dị iche iche
      • zuru ezu (akara), dịka Greco-Latin, Cyrillic
      • nwere nkwarụ, dịka Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, Old South Arabian, Paleo-Hebrew
Nchịkọta nke Daniels
Ụdị Ihe nnọchianya ọ bụla na-anọchite anya Ihe Nlereanya
Okwu Mgbasa Ozi okwu ma ọ bụ morpheme yana mkpụrụedemede Ihe odide ndị China
Akara okwu mkpụrụedemede kana ndị Japan
Abjad (nke ọzọ) ụdaume Mkpụrụ akwụkwọ Arabic
Mkpụrụ akwụkwọ ụdaume ma ọ bụ ụdaume Mkpụrụ akwụkwọ Latịn
Abugida ụdaume na ụdaume a kapịrị ọnụ, akara ndị na-agbanwe agbanwe na-anọchite anya ụdaume ndị ọzọ
 Devanagari nke India
Usoro okike ihe pụrụ iche nke akụkụ Hangul nke Korea

Usoro akara ngosi

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Ihe odide ndị China oge ochie maka anyanwụ (ri), 1200 BC
 
Ihe odide ndị China nke oge a (ri) nke pụtara "ụbọchị" ma ọ bụ "Anyanwụ"

logogram bụ otu ihe odide edere nke na-anọchite anya ọdịdị ụtọ asụsụ zuru oke. [20]Ihe odide ndị China bụ ihe atụ nke logograms nke ihe odide ọ bụla na-anọchite anya syllabic morpheme, ma ọ bụ, mgbe ụfọdụ, ọkara nke morpheme maka ọnụ ọgụgụ dị nta nke disyllabic morphemes. N'ime usoro dị otú ahụ, se (x) dec-, hexa (kai) deca-, hexadec- na iri na isii ga-eji otu logogram dee maka cognates niile maka isii na otu maka cognats niile maka -teen, na-ahapụ onye na-agụ ya ịhọrọ ma ọ ga-agụ ya n'ụzọ Grik ma ọ bụ n'ụzọ Rom, ma ọ bụ ụzọ ngwakọta nke Greco-Roman, ọ bụ ezie na ọ bụ naanị ihe mgbochi ụfọdụ.

Dị ka ihe odide ọ bụla na-anọchite anya otu okwu (ma ọ bụ, n'ụzọ ziri ezi karị, morpheme), a chọrọ ọtụtụ logograms iji dee okwu niile nke asụsụ. Ọ bụrụ na ha anaghị anọchite anya ihe niile na okwu niile nke asụsụ, ire okwu ma ọ bụ asụsụ nwere ike ịgbagwoju anya n'okwu ma ọ bụ site na ederede. Ọtụtụ logograms na iburu n'isi ihe ha pụtara bụ ndị ụfọdụ na-ewere dị ka nnukwu nsogbu nke usoro logographic karịa usoro mkpụrụedemede. Otú ọ dị, ebe ọ bụ na ihe ọ pụtara dị na akara ahụ, enwere ike iji otu usoro logographic ahụ na-anọchite anya asụsụ dị iche iche. N'omume, ikike ikwurịta okwu n'ofe asụsụ na-arụ ọrụ nke ọma maka ụdị ndị yiri ya nke Chinese, na naanị ruo n'ókè dị ala maka asụsụ ndị ọzọ, dịka ọdịiche dị na syntax na-ebelata crosslinguistic portability nke usoro logographic enyere.

Ndị Japan na-eji akara ndị China eme ihe nke ukwuu na usoro ederede ya, ebe ọtụtụ akara nwere otu ma ọ bụ ihe yiri ya. Otú ọ dị, ọdịiche ụtọ asụsụ dị n'etiti ndị Japan na ndị China dị ịrịba ama nke na onye na-agụ akwụkwọ na-aghọtaghị ederede ogologo nke ndị China n'enweghị ihe ọmụma ọ bụla banyere ụtọ Asụsụ ndị China, ọ bụ ezie na ahịrịokwu dị mkpirikpi na nke dị mkpirisi dị ka ndị dị na akara na isi akụkọ dị mfe nghọta. N'otu aka ahụ, onye na-agụ akwụkwọ na China nwere ike inweta echiche zuru oke banyere ihe ederede ogologo nke Japan pụtara mana ọ naghị aghọta ederede ahụ n'ụzọ zuru ezu.

Ọ bụ ezie na ọtụtụ asụsụ anaghị eji usoro ederede logographic zuru oke, ọtụtụ asụsụ na-eji ụfọdụ logograms. Ezigbo ihe atụ nke logograms ọdịda anya nke oge a bụ Nọmba Arabic: onye ọ bụla na-eji akara ndị ahụ na-aghọta ihe 1 pụtara ma ha na-akpọ ya 'otu', eins, uno, yi, ichi, ehad, ena, ma ọ bụ jedan. Ihe ngosi ọdịda anyanwụ ndị ọzọ gụnyere ampersand &, nke a 'na'-eji maka na akara @, nke a-eji n'ọtụtụ ọnọdụ maka at, akara pasent % na ọtụtụ akara na-anọchite anya nkeji ego ($, ¢, €, £, ¥ na ihe ndị ọzọ.)

A na-akpọ logograms mgbe ụfọdụ Ideograms, okwu nke na-ezo aka na akara ndị na-anọchite anya echiche ndị a na-adịghị ahụ anya, mana ndị ọkà mmụta asụsụ na-ezere ojiji a, dịka mkpụrụedemede ndị China na-abụkarị ihe ndị na-egosi ụda olu, akara ndị na'ime ihe na-anọchi anya ihe na-egosi ihe ọ pụtara na ihe na-akwado ụda olu nke na-anọchitere aha. Ụfọdụ ndị na-abụghị ndị na-asụ asụsụ na-eme ka ọdịiche dị n'etiti lexigraphy na ideography, ebe akara na lexigraphies na-anọchite anya okwu ma ọ bụ morphemes.

Ihe kachasị mkpa (na, ruo n'ókè, naanị nke dị ndụ) usoro ederede logographic ọgbara ọhụrụ bụ nke Chinese, onye ejirila ihe odide ya mee ihe na ọkwa dịgasị iche iche nke mgbanwe na ụdị Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese na asụsụ ndị ọzọ dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia. Hieroglyphs ndị Ijipt oge ochie na usoro odide ndị Mayan bụkwa sistemu nwere ụfọdụ njirimara logographic, n'agbanyeghị na ha nwekwara akara njirimara ụda olu na anaghịzi eji ya ugbu a. Vietnamese gbanwere na mkpụrụedemede Latịn na narị afọ nke 20 na iji mkpụrụedemede China na Korean bụ na-esiwanye ụkọ. Usoro edemede ndị Japan gụnyere ọtụtụ ụdị ederede dị iche iche gụnyere logography.

Usoro ụdaume: ụdaume

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Ihe ịrịba ama nkwụsị Asụsụ Abụọ na Bekee na mkpụrụedemede Cherokee na Tahlequah, Oklahoma

A na-atụle ụdị usoro ederede ọzọ nwere akara akara syllabic, abugidas, n'okpuru ebe a.

Dị ka usoro ihe odide logographic na-eji otu akara maka otu okwu dum, syllabary bụ akara mkpụrụedemede edere na-anọchi anya (ma ọ bụ ihe dị ka), nke mebere mkpụrụokwu. Akara dị na syllabary na-anọchi anya ụda consonant na-esochi ụda ụdaume, ma ọ bụ naanị ụdaume naanị.

N'ime "ezi syllabary", ọ nweghị ihe yiri ya n'etiti mkpụrụedemede ndị metụtara ụdaume (ọ bụ ezie na ụfọdụ nwere ihe yiri ya maka ụdaume). Nke ahụ bụ, ihe odide maka /ke/, /ka/ na /ko/ enweghị ihe yiri ya iji gosipụta ụda "k" ha (voiceless velar plosive). Ihe ndị ọzọ e kere n'oge na-adịbeghị anya dị ka syllabary Cree na-egosipụta usoro nke ihe ịrịba ama dịgasị iche iche, nke a pụrụ ịhụ nke ọma mgbe ị na-ahazi syllabogram setịpụrụ na tebụl mmalite ma ọ bụ mmalite.

Syllabaries kacha adaba na asụsụ ndị nwere usoro mkpụrụedemede dị mfe, dị ka Japanese. Asụsụ Bekee, n'aka nke ọzọ, na-enye ohere usoro mkpụrụedemede dị mgbagwoju anya, nke nwere nnukwu ndepụta nke ụdaume na ụyọkọ ụdaume dị mgbagha, na-eme ka ọ sie ike ide okwu Bekee na mkpụrụedemede. Iji dee Bekee site na iji mkpụrụedemede, mkpụrụedemede ọ bụla nwere ike ịdị na Bekee ga-enwerịrị akara dị iche, ebe ọnụọgụ mkpụrụedemede nwere ike ịdị n'asụsụ Japanese dị ihe dị ka 100, na Bekee enwere ihe dịka 15,000 ruo 16,000.

Otú ọ dị, mkpụrụedemede nwere ndepụta buru ibu dị. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ederede Yi nwere akara 756 dị iche iche (ma ọ bụ 1,164, ma ọ bụrụ na a na-agụ akara nwere otu ụda dị ka mkpụrụedemede dị iche iche, dịka na Unicode). Ihe odide Chinese, mgbe ejiri ya dee Middle Chinese na ụdị dị iche iche nke Chinese, na-anọchite anya mkpụrụedemede, ma na-agụnye glyphs dị iche iche maka ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ọtụtụ puku mkpụrụedemede niile na Middle Chinese; Otú ọ dị, n'ihi na ọ na-anọchi anya morphemes ma na-etinye mkpụrụedemede dị iche iche iji nọchite anya homophonous morphemes nwere nkọwa dị iche iche, a na-ewere ya dị ka ederede logographic karịa syllabary.

Asụsụ ndị ọzọ na-eji ezi syllabaries gụnyere Mycenaean Greek (Linear B) na asụsụ ụmụ amaala America dị ka Cherokee. Ọtụtụ asụsụ nke Ancient Near East ji ụdị cuneiform, nke bụ syllabary nwere ụfọdụ ihe na-abụghị syllabic.

Usoro nkewa: mkpụrụ akwụkwọ

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Mkpụrụedemede bụ obere mkpụrụedemede (akara ederede bụ isi), nke ọ bụla n'ime ha na-anọchi anya ma ọ bụ nọchitere anya n'akụkọ ihe mere eme fọnịm akụkụ nke asụsụ a na-asụ. E si na mkpụrụ okwu nweta mkpụrụ okwu alfa na beta, akara abụọ mbụ nke mkpụrụedemede Greek.

Ụdị mkpụrụedemede mbụ e mepụtara bụ abjad. Abjad bụ usoro odide mkpụrụedemede ebe enwere otu akara n'otu consonant. Abjads dị iche na mkpụrụedemede ndị ọzọ na ha nwere mkpụrụedemede naanị maka ụda consonantal. A naghị edokarị ụdaume na abjads. Abjads niile amaara (ma ewezuga Tifinagh) bụ ndị ezinụlọ Semitic nke scripts, wee nweta na mbụ Northern Linear Abjad. Ihe kpatara nke a bụ na asụsụ ndị Semitic na asụsụ Berber ndị emetụtara nwere usoro morphemic nke na-eme ka akara ụdaume gharazie ịdị n'ọtụtụ oge.

Ụfọdụ abjads, dị ka Arabic na Hibru, nwekwara akara maka ụdaume. Otú ọ dị, ha na-eji ha eme ihe naanị n'ọnọdụ pụrụ iche, dịka maka nkuzi. A gbatịkwuru ọtụtụ mkpụrụedemede sitere na abjads na akara ụdaume iji ghọọ mkpụrụedemede zuru ezu. N'ime ndị a, ihe atụ a ma ama bụ mwepụta nke mkpụrụedemede Grik site na abjad nke Phoenician. Nke a emeela mgbe emere edemede ahụ ka ọ bụrụ asụsụ na-abụghị nke ndị Juu. Okwu abjad na-ewere aha ya site na usoro ochie nke mkpụrụedemede Arabic 'alif, bā', jīm, dāl, ọ bụ ezie na okwu ahụ nwere ike ịnwe mgbọrọgwụ mbụ na Phoenician ma ọ bụ Ugaritic. "Abjad" ka bụ okwu maka mkpụrụ akwụkwọ na Arabic, Malay na Indonesian.

 
Akwụkwọ Nsọ e bipụtara na mkpụrụedemede BalineseIhe odide Balinese

A abugida bụ usoro ederede mkpụrụ akwụkwọ nke akara ya bụ isi na-egosi ụdaume nwere ụdaume sitere na ya na ebe mgbanwe ndị na-agbanwe agbanwe nke akara ahụ bụ isi na na-egosi vowel ndị ọzọ na-esote karịa nke sitere na ya. Ya mere, na abugida enwere ike ma ọ bụ na ọ gaghị enwe akara maka "k" na-enweghị ụdaume, kamakwa otu maka "ka" (ma ọ bụrụ na "a" bụ ụdaume), a na-edekwa "ke" site na ịgbanwe akara "ka" n'ụzọ kwekọrọ n'otú mmadụ ga-esi gbanwee "la" iji nweta "le". N'ọtụtụ abugidas, mgbanwe ahụ bụ mgbakwunye nke akara ụdaume, mana enwere ike iche n'echiche (ma jiri ya mee ihe), dị ka ntụgharị nke akara isi, mgbakwunye nke mkpịsị aka na ihe ndị ọzọ.

Ọdịiche dị na "ezigbo syllabaries" bụ na nke ikpeazụ nwere otu akara dị iche iche n'otu mkpụrụokwu enwere ike, na akara nke mkpụrụokwu nke ọ bụla enweghị myirịta eserese n'usoro. Myirịta eserese nke ọtụtụ abugidas sitere na ha sitere na abjads, na consonants mebere akara ndị nwere ụdaume dị n'ime ya na akara ụdaume ọhụrụ bụ Akara agbakwunyere na akara ala. N'edemede Ge'ez, nke akpọrọ okwu asụsụ abugida maka ya, mgbanwe ụdaume anaghị apụta n'usoro mgbe niile, n'agbanyeghị na ọ dị na mbụ karịa.

Enwere ike were syllabics ndị Aboriginal Canada dị ka abugida, n'agbanyeghị na a naghị echekarị ha n'okwu ndị ahụ. Otu nnukwu otu abugidas bụ ezinụlọ Brahmic nke scripts, agbanyeghị, nke gụnyere ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ edemede niile ejiri na India na Ndịda Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia. Aha abugida sitere na mkpụrụedemede anọ mbụ nke usoro nke edemede Ge'ez ejiri mee ihe n'ụfọdụ ebe. E nwetara ya site n'asụsụ Etiopia dị ka okwu asụsụ site n'aka Peter T. Daniels.

Usoro atụmatụ

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Edemede na-egosi nkọwa dị mma karịa mkpụrụedemede. N'ebe a akara anaghị anọchi anya fọnịm dum, kama ọ bụ akụkụ (atụmatụ) nke mebere fọnịm, dị ka ụda olu ma ọ bụ ebe ya ikwu okwu. N'usoro iwu, enwere ike iji mkpụrụedemede dị iche dee akụkụ ọ bụla; na abjads ma ọ bụ abugidas, ma ọ bụ n'ezie syllabaries, nwere ike ịbụ ihe ngosi, mana naanị usoro a ma ama n'ụdị a bụ. Korean hangul. Na hangul, a na-ejikọta akara ngosi ndị ahụ ka ha bụrụ mkpụrụedemede mkpụrụedemede, a na-ejikọta mkpụrụedemede ndị a na syllabic blocks, nke mere na usoro ahụ jikọtara ọkwa atọ nke ihe nnọchianya phonological

Ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta, dịka John DeFrancis, jụrụ klas a ma ọ bụ ma ọ dịkarịa ala ịkpọ hangul dị ka nke a.   Ihe odide Korean bụ ihe odide maara ihe nke ọma nke ndị ọkachamara gụrụ akwụkwọ mepụtara, nke Daniels na-akpọ "grammatogeny dị mgbagwoju anya".  [citation needed] Ihe ndị a gụnyere stenographies na edemede ndị e wuru n'aka ndị na-eme ihe ntụrụndụ na ndị na-ede akụkọ ifo (dị ka Tengwar), ọtụtụ n'ime ha gosipụtara atụmatụ eserese dị elu nke kwekọrọ na njirimara phonologic. [citation needed]Akụkụ bụ isi nke ide ihe na usoro ndị a nwere ike ịpụta ihe ọ bụla site na fonemes ruo okwu. E gosipụtara na ọbụna mkpụrụedemede Latin nwere "ihe odide" nke obere mkpụrụedemede.

Usoro ndị a na-ejighị n'aka

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Ọtụtụ usoro ederede abụghị naanị otu ụdị. Usoro ederede Bekee, dịka ọmụmaatụ, gụnyere ọnụọgụ na akara ngosi ndị ọzọ dị ka #, $, na &, na asụsụ ederede anaghị adabakarị nke ọma. ya na nke ekwuru. Dịka ekwuru n'elu, sistemụ logographic niile nwekwara akụkụ ụda olu, ma n'usoro nke syllabary, dị ka Chinese ("logo-syllabic"), ma ọ bụ abjad, dị ka ọ dị n'Ijipt ("logo-consonantal").

Otú ọ dị, ụfọdụ ederede bụ ihe na-edoghị anya. Ọk mkp nke Spain oge ochie bụ mkpụrụedemede maka t cx-link" data-linkid="645" href="./Plosive_consonant" id="mwAsY" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Plosive consonant">plosives dị ka p, t, k, mana mkpụrụedemede iji ụdaume ndị ọzọ. Na nsụgharị ụfọdụ, a na-ede ụdaume na-enweghị isi mgbe mkpụrụedemede syllabic gasịrị, na-agbaso orthography mkpụrụedemede. Cuneiform nke Persian oge ochie yiri nke ahụ. N'i ụdau iri abụọ na atọ (gụnyere null), asaa bụ syllabic zuru oke, iri na atọ bụ mkpụrụ akwụkwọ, maka atọ ndị ọzọ, e nwere otu mkpụrụedemede maka /Cu/ na nke ọzọ maka /Ca/ na /Ci/. Otú ọ dị, edere ụda niile n'ụzọ doro anya n'agbanyeghị; dịka na abugidas Brahmic, e ji mkpụrụedemede /Ca/ mee ihe maka ụdaume efu.

zhuyin phonetic gloss script maka Chinese na-ekewa mkpụrụedemede abụọ ma ọ bụ atọ, mana na mmalite, etiti, na Rịme karịa ụdaume na ụdaume. Pahawk Hmong yiri ya, mana enwere ike iwere ya ka ọ kewaa mkpụrụedemede n'ime ma ọ bụ mmalite-rime ma ọ bụrụ ụdaume-mkpụrụedemede (a na-eji otu mkpụrụedemede ede ụyọkọ ụdaume na diphthongs niile); dịka nke ikpeazụ, ọ bụ otu abugida mana ọrụ nke ụdaume na ụdaume gbanwere. Ihe odide ndị ọzọ dị n'etiti ụdị mkpụrụ akwụkwọ, abjad na abugida, yabụ enwere ike inwe nghọtahie na otu esi ekewapụta ha.

Nhazi eserese

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Perhaps the primary graphic distinction made in classifications is that of linearity. Linear writing systems are those in which the characters are composed of lines, such as the Latin alphabet and Chinese characters. Chinese characters are considered linear whether they are written with a ball-point pen or a calligraphic brush, or cast in bronze. Similarly, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Maya glyphs were often painted in linear outline form, but in formal contexts they were carved in bas-relief. The earliest examples of writing are linear: the Sumerian script of Templeeti:Circa was linear, though its cuneiform descendants were not. Non-linear systems, on the other hand, such as braille, are not composed of lines, no matter what instrument is used to write them.

Cuneiform nwere ike bụrụ odide izizi na-abụghị nke ahịrị. A na-emepụta glyphs ya site n'itinye njedebe nke stylus okporo ahịhịa amị ka ọ bụrụ ụrọ na-eju mmiri, ọ bụghị site n'iji eriri ahụ were eriri na-achọpụta ahịrị dị na ụrọ ahụ dị ka e meworona mbụ. Ihe si na ya pụta bụ mgbanwe mgbanwe ọdịdị nke edemede ahụ. [21][22]

Braille bụ mmegharị nke mkpụrụedemede Latịn na-abụghị ahịrị nke gbahapụrụ ụdị Latin kpamkpam. Ihe mejupụtara akwụkwọ ozi ndị ahụ bụ mkpọmkpọ agbagoro n'elu ihe odide ederede, nke nwere ike ịbụ akpụkpọ anụ (Ihe izizi Louis Braille), akwụkwọ siri ike, rọba ma ọ bụ ọla.

Enwekwara ngbanwe nke mkpụrụedemede Latịn na-abụghị ahịrị, gụnyere koodu Morse, mkpụrụedemede akwụkwọ ntuziaka nke asụsụ ndị ogbi dị iche iche, na semaphore, bụ ebe edobere ọkọlọtọ ma ọ bụ mmanya.n'akụkụ akàrà. Agbanyeghị, ọ bụrụ na akọwara “edemede” dị ka ụzọ nwere ike ịdekọ ozi na-adịgide adịgide, yabụ sistemụ ndị a erughị eru ka ede ma ọlị, ebe akara ngosi na-apụ n'any ozugbo ejiri ha mee ihe. (Kama, usoro ndị a na-agafe agafe na-eje ozi dị ka akara.)

Nchịkọta

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Nchịkọta nke ntụziaka ederede eji eme ihe n'ụwa

A na-akọwa ihe odide site na ntụziaka e dere ha. A na-ede ihe odide ndị Ijipt ma ọ bụ n'aka ekpe gaa n'aka nri ma ọ bụ aka nri gaa n' aka ekpe, na glyphs nke anụmanụ na nke mmadụ tụgharịrị ihu na mmalite nke ahịrị. Enwere ike ide mkpụrụedemede mbụ n'ọtụtụ ntụziaka: n'akụkụ (n'akụkụ), ma ọ bụ n'elu (n'elu ma ọ bụ ala). [23]Tupu a na-eme ka ọ bụrụ ihe a ma ama, a na-ede mkpụrụ akwụkwọ site n'aka ekpe gaa n'aka nri (LTR ma ọ bụ sinistrodextrally) na site n' aka nri gaa n' aka ekpe (RTL ma ọ bụ dextrosinistrally). A na-edekarị ya na boustrophedonic: malite n'otu ntụziaka (horizontal), wee tụgharịa na njedebe nke ahịrị ma gbanwee ntụziaka.

Mkpụrụ akwụkwọ Grik na ndị nọchiri ya nọgidere na-aga n'aka ekpe gaa n'aka nri, site n'elu ruo n'ala nke ibe ahụ. A malitere ide ihe odide ndị ọzọ, dị ka Arabic na Hibru, site n'aka nri gaa n'aka ekpe. A na-ede iwu odide ndị na-ejikọta mkpụrụedemede Chinese (gụnyere Japanese, Korea Ndị Vietnamese wdg) n'akụkọ ọdịnala, na ọkwa mkpụrụedemede, n'ụzọ kwụ ọtọ (n'elu ruo n'ala), site n'aka nri ruo n'aka ekpe nke ibe ahụ, mana n'oge a, a na-edekarị ya site n'akụkụ aka ekpe, site n'elu ruo na aka nri, n'ihi mmetụta ọdịda anyanwụ, mkpa na-arịwanye elu iji nabata okwu na usoro akwụkwọ Latin, na usoro akwụkwọ elektrọnik a na-ewu ewu, na-ede ha niile, na-edikarị, ya (", o ", o" , "o" , ma ọ bụ, "o" ka ọ bụla, "o".

Ihe odide ndị China mgbe ụfọdụ, dịka na akara ngosi, ọkachasị mgbe ọ na-egosi ihe ochie ma ọ bụ ọdịnala, enwere ike ide ya site n'aka nri gaa n'aka ekpe ma ọ bụrụ na edere ya n'ụzọ kwụ ọtọ, mana nke a bụ ihe pụrụ iche nke ọdịnala "nke kwụ ọtọ (site n'elu ruo n'ala), site n'akụkụ aka nri gaa n"aka ekpe nke bọọdụ ahụ" (tbrl), ọ bụ ezie na kọlụm ọ bụla nwere naanị otu ihe odide. Enweghị bọọdụ nwere ihe karịrị ahịrị abụọ na-agbaso ntụziaka rltb, mkpụrụedemede anọ na-eme ka square ga-agbaso tbrl ma ọ bụ lrtb. Mkpụrụ akwụkwọ Old Uyghur (na ụfọdụ Sogdian) na ụmụ ya pụrụ iche n'ịbụ ndị e dere site n'elu ruo n'ala, site n'aka ekpe gaa n'aka nri; ntụziaka a sitere na ntụziaka Semitic nke nna nna site na ịtụgharị peeji 90 ° na-emegide elekere iji kwekọọ na ọdịdị nke ederede Chinese kwụ ọtọ. Otú ọ dị, ma e wezụga Old Uyghur n'onwe ya, a na-ehota ụmụ ya niile na isiokwu lrtb na ntụziaka ltr na-agbanwe agbanwe mgbe ntinye aka kwụ ọtọ adịghị mma. Mgbe e hotara ndị China na isiokwu ndị Mongolia, ọ ga-adaba na atụmatụ tblr

Ọtụtụ script eji eme ihe na Philippines na Indonesia, dị ka Hanunó'o, ka a na-eji ọdịnala na-apụ site n'aka onye edemede, site na ala ruo n'elu, mana a na-agụ ya n'akụkụ aka ekpe gaa n'aka nriOtú ọ dị, Kulitan, edemede Philippine ọzọ, ka edere n'elu ruo ala na aka nri gaa n'aka ekpe. Edere Ogham ala ruo n'elu wee gụọ ya kwụ ọtọ, na-adịkarị n'akụkụ nkuku okwute. ; . Edekwara mkpụrụedemede Libyco-Berber ochie site na ala ruo n'elu[24]

Ihe odide site n'aka ekpe gaa n'aka nri nwere uru na ebe ọ bụ na ọtụtụ ndị mmadụ na-eji aka nri eme ihe, aka anaghị egbochi ederede edere nke ọma, nke nwere ike ọ gaghị akọrọ, ebe aka dị n'akụkụ aka nri nke mkpịsị akwụkwọ. [25][26]A na-azọrọ na ederede site n'aka nri gaa n'aka ekpe bara uru n'azụ mgbe ejiri hama na chisel dee; onye odeakwụkwọ ga-ejide hama n'aka aka nri ya na chisel n'aka ndụ aka ekpe ya, na ịga site n' aka nri gaa n"aka ekpe ga-apụta na hama ahụ agaghị ekwe omume ịkụ aka ekpe, ebe aka nri nwere njikwa karịa.[27][28]

Na kọmputa

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Na kọmpụta na sistemụ nkwukọrịta, anaghị ahazi usoro ederede dịka nke a, [nkọwa chọrọ] kama graphemes na nkeji grapheme ndị ọzọ achọrọ maka nhazi ederede.na-anọchi anya "edemede" ndị na-egosipụtakarị n'ụdị edobere. Enwere ọtụtụ ụkpụrụ ngbanwe agwa yana teknụzụ metụtara ya, dịka ISO/IEC 8859-1(ntụgharị agwa na atụmatụ nzuzo gbadoro ụkwụ na edemede Latin), CJK (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) na ederede ntụzịaka.

Taa, a na-akọwagharịkwa ọtụtụ ụkpụrụ ndị dị otú ahụ na ọkọlọtọ mkpokọta, ISO/IEC 10646 "Universal Character Set", yana ọrụ gbasawanye nke nwere njikọ chiri anya, The Unicode Standard. Okwu Unicode gbakọtara ha abụọ. Na Unicode, a na-enye mkpụrụedemede ọ bụla, n'usoro ederede asụsụ ọ bụla (na-eme ka ọ dị mfe) nọmba njirimara pụrụ iche, mara dị ka ebe koodu ya. Sistemụ arụ ọrụ Kọmputa na-eji akara koodu iji chọpụta mkpụrụedemede na faịlụ font, yabụ enwere ike igosipụta mkpụrụedemede na ibe ma ọ bụ ihuenyo.

Ahụigodo bụ ngwaọrụ a na-ejikarị ede site na kọmputa. Ejikọ igodo ọ bụla na koodu ọkọlọtọ nke ahụigodo na-eziga na kọmputa mgbe ịpịrị ya. Site n'iji nchikota nke igodo mkpụrụedemede na igodo mgbanwe dịka Ctrl, Alt, Shift na AltGr, a na-emepụta koodu agwa dị iche iche ma zigara ya na CPU. Sistemu arụ ọrụ na-egbochi ma tụgharịaakara ndị ahụ na mkpụrụedemede kwesịrị ekwesị dabere na nhazi ahụigodo na usoro ntinye, wee nyefee koodu na mkpụrụedemede ndị ahụ na ngwa ngwa na-agba ọsọ, nke n'aka nke ya na-eleba anya glyph kwesịrị ekwesị na faịlụ font ejiri ugbu a, ma rịọkwa sistemụ arụmọrụ ka ọ see ihe ndị a na ihuenyo.

Hụkwa

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Edensibia

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  1. ↑ Coulmas, Florian. 2003. Writing systems. An introduction. Cambridge University Press. pg. 35.
  2. ↑ David Crystal (2008), A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th Edition, p. 481, Wiley
  3. ↑ Hadumod Bußmann (1998), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, p. 1294, Taylor & Francis
  4. ↑ Hadumod Bußmann (1998), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, p. 979, Taylor & Francis
  5. ↑ Harriet Joseph Ottenheimer (2012), The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology, p. 194, Cengage Learning
  6. ↑ Is it plausible to have two written forms of one spoken language that are so different as to be indecipherable?. Worldbuilding Stack Exchange.
  7. ↑ Metaphor and Analogy in the Sciences, p. 126, Springer Science & Business Media (2013)
  8. ↑ Machine learning could finally crack the 4,000-year-old Indus script (25 January 2017).
  9. ↑ New scientist. Hieroglyphics
  10. ↑ Robert Bagley (2004). "Anyang writing and the origin of the Chinese writing system", in Houston: The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process (in en). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521838610. Retrieved on 3 April 2019. 
  11. ↑ William G. Boltz (1999). "Language and Writing", in Loewe: The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC (in en). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521470308. Retrieved on 3 April 2019. 
  12. ↑ David N. Keightley, Noel Barnard. The Origins of Chinese civilization. Page 415-416
  13. ↑ Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature. Gwendolyn Leick, p. 3.
  14. ↑ Coulmas (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.. ISBN 0-631-21481-X. 
  15. ↑ David Diringer (1962): Writing. London.
  16. ↑ Archibald Hill (1967): The typology of Writing systems. In: William A. Austin (ed.), Papers in Linguistics in Honor of Leon Dostert. The Hague, 92–99.
  17. ↑ John DeFrancis (1989): Visible speech. The diverse oneness of writing systems. Honolulu
  18. ↑ Geoffrey Sampson (1986): Writing Systems. A Linguistic Approach. London
  19. ↑ Alice Faber (1992): Phonemic segmentation as an epiphenomenon. Evidence from the history of alphabetic writing. In: Pamela Downing et al. (ed.): The Linguistics of Literacy. Amsterdam. 111–134.
  20. ↑ The concept "word" is not well-defined in many Mainland Southeast Asian languages such as Chinese, nevertheless, syllabic morphemes and phrases can be well-defined.
  21. ↑ Cammarosano. Cuneiform Writing Techniques (en). cuneiform.neocities.org. Retrieved on 2018-07-18.
  22. ↑ Cammarosano (2014). "The Cuneiform Stylus" (in en). Mesopotamia XLIX: 53–90. 
  23. ↑ Threatte, Leslie (1980). The grammar of Attic inscriptions. W. de Gruyter, 54–55. ISBN 3-11-007344-7. 
  24. ↑ Berber. Ancient Scripts. Archived from the original on 2017-08-26. Retrieved on 2017-10-09.
  25. ↑ de Kovel (2019-01-24). "A large-scale population study of early life factors influencing left-handedness" (in en). Scientific Reports 9 (1): 584. DOI:10.1038/s41598-018-37423-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 30679750. 
  26. ↑ Papadatou-Pastou (2020-06-01). "Human handedness: A meta-analysis." (in en). Psychological Bulletin 146 (6): 481–524. DOI:10.1037/bul0000229. ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 32237881. 
  27. ↑ Why is Hebrew written from right to left? Israeli Box
  28. ↑ Why Do We Read English From Left To Right? (March 11, 2012).

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