Wikipedia

Ọrụ ugbo na-adịgide adịgide

Ọrụ ugbo na-eri nri na-eme mgbe ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akụ ihe ọkụkụ n'obere ebe iji gboo mkpa nke onwe ha na ezinụlọ ha.[1] Ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eri nri na-elekwasị anya na mmepụta ugbo maka nlanarị yana maka ihe ndị mpaghara chọrọ. Mkpebi ihe ọkụkụ na-eme n'ụzọ bụ isi na-eleba anya n'ihe ezinụlọ ga-achọ n'ime afọ na-abịa, na nke abụọ na ọnụ ahịa ahịa.[1] Tony Waters, bụ́ prọfesọ nke nkà mmụta mmekọrịta ọha na eze, na-akọwa "ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eri nri" dị ka "ndị na-akụ ihe ha na-eri, na-ewu ụlọ nke ha, na-ebikwa n'azụghị ihe mgbe nile n'ọma ahịa.".[1]: 2 

Onye ọrụ ugbo Bakweri na-arụ ọrụ n'ubi taro ya na ndagwurugwu nke Ugwu Cameroon, 2005
Ndị ọrụ ugbo na-ere ihe ha na-emepụta, 2017

N'agbanyeghị afọ ojuju onwe onye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo, ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eri nri na-ekerekwa òkè n'ahịa ruo n'ókè ụfọdụ. Ọ bụ ezie na ọnụ ahịa ahịa ha dị ka a tụrụ na ego dị obere karịa nke ndị na-azụ ahịa na mba ndị nwere ahịa ọgbara ọhụrụ, ha na-eji ahịa ndị a na-enwetakarị ngwa ahịa, ọ bụghị iji nweta ego maka nri; ngwa ahịa ndị a anaghị adị mkpa maka nlanarị ma nwee ike ịgụnye shuga, akwa mkpuchi igwe, igwe igwe, uwe eji eme ihe, na ihe ndị ọzọ. Ọtụtụ ndị nwere kọntaktị azụmaahịa dị mkpa na ihe azụmaahịa ha nwere ike imepụta n'ihi nka pụrụiche ha ma ọ bụ ohere pụrụ iche iji nweta akụrụngwa akpọrọ ihe n'ọma ahịa..[2]

Ọrụ ugbo taa bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị na Mba ndị na-emepe emepe.[2] Ọrụ ugbo na-adịkarị mkpa: obere ego / ego achọrọ, ihe ọkụkụ ngwakọta, obere ojiji nke agrochemicals (dịka ọgwụ ahụhụ na fatịlaịza), ụdị ihe ọkụkụ na anụmanụ na-adịghị mma, obere ma ọ bụ enweghị ihe ọ bụla maka ire ere, iji ngwá ọrụ na-enweghị isi / ọdịnala (dịka oghere, mma, na cutlasses), ọkachasị mmepụta nke ihe ọkụkụ, obere ala, ịdabere na ọrụ a na-amaghị ama (mgbe ndị ezinụlọ), na (n'ozuzu) obere ihe ọkụkụ.

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently,Templeeti:When when market-based capitalism became widespread.[3]

Ọrụ ugbo na-adịgide adịgide na-apụ n'anya na Europe site na mmalite nke narị afọ nke iri abụọ. Ọ malitere ibelata na North America site na mmegharị nke ndị na-ere ahịa na ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ site na South America na Midwest n'oge 1930s na 1940s.[1]   [peeji dị mkpa] Na Central na Eastern Europe, ọrụ ugbo na-adịgide adịgide pụtara ọzọ n'ime akụ na ụba mgbanwe mgbe 1990 gasịrị mana ọ belatara n'ihe dị mkpa (ma ọ bụ pụọ n'anya) n'ọtụtụ mba site na ịbanye na EU na 2004 ma ọ bụ 2007.

Omume nke oge a

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Ọrụ ugbo na-aga n'ihu taa n'akụkụ buru ibu nke ime obodo Africa, na akụkụ nke Eshia na Latin America.[4] N'afọ 2015, ihe dị ka ijeri mmadụ 2 (ihe karịrị 25% nke ndị bi n'ụwa) n'ime nde ezinụlọ 500 bi n'ime ime obodo nke mba ndị na-emepe emepe na-adị ndụ dị ka ndị ọrụ ugbo "obere", na-arụ ọrụ n'okpuru hekta 2 (5 acres) nke ala.[5] Ihe dị ka 98% nke ndị ọrụ ugbo China na-arụ ọrụ na obere ugbo, China na-akpata ihe dị ka ọkara nke ngụkọta ugbo ụwa.[5] Na India, 80% nke ndị ọrụ ugbo niile bụ ndị ọrụ ugpo; Ethiopia na Eshia nwere ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ 90% ịbụ obere; ebe Mexico na Brazil dekọrọ 50% na 20% ịbụ obere.[5]

Mpaghara ebe a na-arụ ọrụ ugbo taa, dị ka India na mpaghara ndị ọzọ dị n'Eshia, ahụla mbelata na nso nso a na omume ahụ. Nke a bụ n'ihi usoro ndị dị ka ime obodo, mgbanwe nke ala n'ime ime obodo, na njikọta nke ụdị ọrụ ugbo nke isi obodo. [6] Na India, mmụba nke mmepụta ihe na mbelata nke ọrụ ugbo ime obodo emeela ka enweghị ọrụ n'ime obodo na ịrị elu ịda ogbenye maka ndị nọ n'òtù ndị dị ala. Ndị nwere ike ibi ma rụọ ọrụ n'ógbè ndị mepere emepe nwere ike ịbawanye ego ha na-enweta ebe ndị fọdụrụ n'ime ime obodo na-ebelata nke ukwuu, nke bụ ihe mere na enweghị mbelata dị ukwuu na ịda ogbenye. Nke a na-eme ka ọdịiche dị n'etiti ndị dị ala na ndị dị elu gbasaa ma mee ka o sie ike maka ndị nọ n'ime ime obodo ịkwaga n'ọkwá. Oge a bụ oge ndị ọrụ ugbo na-egbu onwe ha na "obodo na-apụ n'anya".[6]

Ime mgbanwe maka okpomọkụ ụwa

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A na-arụ ọrụ ugbo n'ọtụtụ mba na-emepe emepe nke dị na ihu igwe okpomọkụ. Mmetụta na mmepụta ihe ọkụkụ nke Mgbanwe ihu igwe kpatara ga-adịwanye ike na mpaghara ndị a ka oke okpomọkụ na-ejikọta ya na mmepụta nke ihe ọkụkụ dị ala. A manyere ndị ọrụ ugbo imeghachi omume na okpomọkụ na-arịwanye elu site na ihe ndị dị ka ala na ọrụ na-abawanye nke na-eyi mmepụta ihe ogologo oge egwu.[3] Ịnagide usoro na nzaghachi maka ihu igwe dịgasị iche iche nwere ike ịgụnye ibelata nri a na-eri kwa ụbọchị na ire anụ ụlọ iji kwụọ ụgwọ maka mbelata mmepụta ihe. Nzaghachi ndị a na-eyi ọdịnihu nke ugbo ezinụlọ egwu n'oge ndị na-esonụ dịka ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ugbo ga-ere anụmanụ eji arụ ọrụ ma rie mkpụrụ echekwara maka ịkụ. [7] Ịtụle oke mmetụta mgbanwe ihu igwe n'ọdịnihu siri ike ịchọpụta dịka obere ugbo bụ usoro dị mgbagwoju anya nwere ọtụtụ mmekọrịta dị iche iche. Ebe dị iche iche nwere usoro mgbanwe dị iche iche dị ka ihe ọkụkụ na anụ ụlọ.[8] Ọnụ ọgụgụ mmepụta maka ihe ọkụkụ, dị ka ọka wit, oats, na ọka anọwo na-ebelata n'ụzọ dị ukwuu n'ihi mmetụta okpomọkụ na uto ihe ọkụkụ.[9] Nke a emeela ka ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ugbo gbanwee gaa na ihe ọkụkụ na-anabata okpomọkụ iji nọgide na-arụpụta ihe.[10] Mgbanwe nke ihe ọkụkụ maka ihe ndị ọzọ na-anabata okpomọkụ na-egbochi ụdị ihe ọkụkụ dị iche iche a na-akụ n'ugbo ndị na-eto eto. Dị ka ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ugbo na-arụ ọrụ ugbo iji gboo mkpa nri kwa ụbọchị, nke a nwere ike imetụta nri na nri na-edozi ahụ n'etiti ọtụtụ ezinụlọ na-arụzi ọrụ ugbo.[11]

Ụdị ọrụ ugbo

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Mgbanwe ọrụ ugbo

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  N'ụdị ọrụ ugbo a, a na-ewepụ ala ọhịa site na njikọta nke igbu osisi (ịkpụ ala) na ọkụ, a na'akụkwa ihe ọkụkụ. Mgbe afọ abụọ na atọ gasịrị, uto nke ala ahụ malitere ịda, a gbahapụrụ ala ahụ ma onye ọrụ ugbo ahụ na-aga ịsacha ala ọhụrụ n'ebe ọzọ n'ime ọhịa ka usoro ahụ na-agbaso.[12] Ọ bụ ezie na a hapụrụ ala ahụ n'efu, oké ọhịa ahụ na-etolite ọzọ n'ebe a kpochapụrụ ma weghachite Ala na-eme nri na biomass. Mgbe afọ iri ma ọ bụ karịa gasịrị, onye ọrụ ugbo nwere ike ịlaghachi n'ala mbụ. Ụdị ọrụ ugbo a na-adịgide adịgide na ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ dị ala, mana ọnụ ọgụgụ dị elu chọrọ mkpocha ugboro ugboro nke na-egbochi ala na-eme nri, na-emeghe ọtụtụ okpokoro ọhịa, ma na-agba ume ka a na-egbutu osisi na nnukwu osisi, na-emecha na-akpata mgbukpọ ọhịa na mbuze ala.[13] A na-akpọ ọrụ ugbo na-agbanwe agbanwe dredd na India, Lagos na Indonesia na jhumming na North East India.

Ọrụ ugbo na-anọkarị otu ebe

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Ịkpa anụ na-akwagharị akwagharị

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N'ụdị ọrụ ugbo a, ndị mmadụ na anụmanụ ha na-akwaga n'otu ebe gaa n'ọzọ na-achọ nri anụ ụlọ ha. N'ozuzu, ha na-azụ ehi, atụrụ, ewu, camel na/ma ọ bụ ụgbọ mmiri maka mmiri ara ehi, akpụkpọ anụ, anụ na ajị anụ.[16] Ụzọ ndụ a na-ahụkarị na mpaghara etiti na ọdịda anyanwụ Eshia, India, ọwụwa anyanwụ na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ Africa na ugwu Eurasia. Ọmụmaatụ bụ Bhotiyas na-akwagharị na ndị Gujjars nke Himalaya. Ha na-ebu ihe ha nwere, dị ka ụlọikwuu, na ihe ndị ọzọ, n’azụ ịnyịnya ibu, ịnyịnya na kamel.[17] Na mpaghara ugwu, dị ka Tibet na Andes, a na-azụ yak na llama. Reindeer bụ anụ ụlọ na mpaghara arctic na sub-arctic. Atụrụ, ewu na kamel bụ anụmanụ nkịtị, ehi na ịnyịnya dịkwa mkpa.[14][15]

Ọrụ ugbo na-arụsi ọrụ ike

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N'ọrụ ugbo siri ike, onye ọrụ ugbo na-akọ obere ala site na iji ngwá ọrụ dị mfe na ọrụ ndị ọzọ.[16] Ọnọdụ ihu igwe nwere ọtụtụ ụbọchị na anwụ na ala na-eme nri, na-enye ohere ịzụlite ihe karịrị otu ihe ọkụkụ kwa afọ n'otu ala ahụ. Ndị ọrụ ugbo na-eji obere ala ha emepụta ihe zuru ezu maka oriri ha n'ógbè ahụ, ebe a na-eji ihe ndị fọdụrụnụ eme ihe maka mgbanwe megide ngwaahịa ndị ọzọ. Ọ na-eme ka a na-emepụta nri karịa kwa acre ma e jiri ya tụnyere usoro ndị ọzọ. N'ọnọdụ kachasị njọ, ndị ọrụ ugbo nwere ike ọbụna ịmepụta ala dị n'akụkụ ugwu iji kọọ ubi osikapa. A na-ahụ ubi ndị dị otú ahụ n'akụkụ ndị mmadụ jupụtara na Eshia,dị ka na Philippines. Ha nwekwara ike ịbawanye site na iji nsị, ịgba mmiri na nsị anụmanụ dị ka fatịlaịza. Ọrụ ugbo siri ike na-adịkarị n'ógbè ndị mmadụ jupụtara na mpaghara ndịda, ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ, na ndịda ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia.[16]

Mbelata ịda ogbenye

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Enwere ike iji ọrụ ugbo na-eri nri dị ka atụmatụ ibelata ịda ogbenye, kpọmkwem dị ka ụgbụ nchekwa maka oke ọnụ ahịa nri yana maka nchekwa nri. Mba ndị dara ogbenye na-ejedebe na ego gbasara ego na ụlọ ọrụ nke ga-eme ka ha nwee ike ịnwe ịrị elu na ọnụ ahịa ụlọ yana ijikwa mmemme enyemaka ọha na eze, nke na-abụkarị n'ihi na ha na-eji ngwá ọrụ amụma ezubere maka mba etiti na nnukwu ego. 20] Mba ndị na-enweghị ego na-enwekarị ọnụ ọgụgụ nke 80% nke ndị ogbenye nọ n'ime ime obodo na ihe karịrị 90% nke ezinụlọ ime obodo nwere ohere ịnweta ala, ma ọtụtụ n'ime ndị ogbenye bi n'ime ime obodo enweghị nri zuru oke.[20] Enwere ike iji ọrụ ugbo na-eri nri na mba ndị nwere obere ego dị ka akụkụ nke nzaghachi amụma maka nsogbu nri n'oge dị mkpirikpi na nke ọkara, ma na-enye nchekwa nchekwa maka ndị ogbenye na mba ndị a.[17]

Ọrụ ugbo na-aga nke ọma karịa ọrụ ndị na-abụghị ọrụ ugbo na ịlụso ịda ogbenye ọgụ na mba ndị nwere ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke ndị na-enweghị agụmakwụkwọ ma ọ bụ ndị na-amaghị.[18] Otú ọ dị, e nwere ọkwa ịda ogbenye ị ga-ama iji lekwasị anya n'ọrụ ugbo n'ebe ndị na-ege ntị ziri ezi nọ.[19] Ọrụ ugbo dị mma iji belata ịda ogbenye n'etiti ndị na-enweta $ 1 kwa ụbọchị karịa ndị na-enye $ 2 kwa ụbọchị n'Africa.[19] Ndị na-enweta ego dị ala nwere ike ịbụ ndị na-amaghị nke ọma ma nwee ohere ole na ole; ya mere, ha na-arụ ọrụ siri ike, dị ka ọrụ ugbo.[19] Ndị na-eme $ 2 nwere ohere ka ukwuu ịrụ ọrụ na ọrụ ndị na-adịghị arụ ọrụ na mpaghara ndị na-abụghị ọrụ ugbo.[19]

Hụkwa

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Ebem si dee

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Waters (2008). The persistence of subsistence agriculture : life beneath the level of the marketplace. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-5876-0. OCLC 839303290. Retrieved on 2023-03-19.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Waters" defined multiple times with different content
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Miracle (1968). "Subsistence Agriculture: Analytical Problems and Alternative Concepts". American Journal of Agricultural Economics 50 (2): 292–310. DOI:10.2307/1237543.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "AmJAgriEcon1968Maypp292-310" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Aragón (2021-02-01). "Climate Change and Agriculture: Subsistence Farmers' Response to Extreme Heat" (in en). American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 13 (1): 1–35. DOI:10.1257/pol.20190316. ISSN 1945-7731. Retrieved on 2022-04-10.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "pubs.aeaweb.org" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ Goran Hyden. Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1980.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Rapsomanikis (2015). The economic lives of smallholder farmers 9. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 2016-05-04. Retrieved on 2018-01-11. “About two-thirds of the developing world's 3 billion rural people live in about 475 million small farm households, working on land plots smaller than 2 hectares.”
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Majumdar (2020-04-09). "Rural Transformation in India: Deagrarianization and the Transition from a Farming to Non-farming Economy". Journal of Developing Societies 36 (2): 182–205. DOI:10.1177/0169796x20912631. ISSN 0169-796X. Retrieved on 2022-02-14. 
  7. ↑ Thorlakson (December 2012). "Reducing subsistence farmers' vulnerability to climate change: evaluating the potential contributions of agroforestry in western Kenya" (in en). Agriculture & Food Security 1 (1): 15. DOI:10.1186/2048-7010-1-15. ISSN 2048-7010. 
  8. ↑ Morton (2007-12-11). "The impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence agriculture" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (50): 19680–19685. DOI:10.1073/pnas.0701855104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 18077400. 
  9. ↑ Bita (2013). "Plant tolerance to high temperature in a changing environment: scientific fundamentals and production of heat stress-tolerant crops". Frontiers in Plant Science 4. DOI:10.3389/fpls.2013.00273. ISSN 1664-462X. PMID 23914193. 
  10. ↑ Eyshi Rezaei (October 2015). "Adaptation of crop production to climate change by crop substitution" (in en). Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 20 (7): 1155–1174. DOI:10.1007/s11027-013-9528-1. ISSN 1381-2386. Retrieved on 2022-04-10. 
  11. ↑ Habtemariam (March 2017). "Impact of climate change on farms in smallholder farming systems: Yield impacts, economic implications and distributional effects" (in en). Agricultural Systems 152: 58–66. DOI:10.1016/j.agsy.2016.12.006. Retrieved on 2022-04-10. 
  12. ↑ Community Forestry: Forestry Note 8. www.fao.org. Archived from the original on 2020-06-01. Retrieved on 2020-05-30.
  13. ↑ De Neergaard (2008). "Soil Erosion from Shifting Cultivation and Other Smallholder Land Use in Sarawak, Malaysia". Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment 4 (42). DOI:10.1016/j.agee.2007.12.013. 
  14. ↑ Miggelbrink, Judith. (2016). Nomadic and indigenous spaces : productions and cognitions. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-59843-7. OCLC 953047010. 
  15. ↑ Miggelbrink (15 November 2016). Nomadic and indigenous spaces : productions and cognitions. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-26721-3. OCLC 1010537015. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Vaughn (May 2014). "Intensive Interventions in Reading for Students with Reading Disabilities: Meaningful Impacts". Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 29 (2): 46–53. DOI:10.1111/ldrp.12031. ISSN 0938-8982. PMID 24910504. 
  17. ↑ de Janvry (2011-06-01). "Subsistence farming as a safety net for food-price shocks". Development in Practice 21 (4–5): 472–480. DOI:10.1080/09614524.2011.561292. ISSN 0961-4524. 
  18. ↑ Christiaensen (2018-09-01). "Agriculture, structural transformation and poverty reduction: Eight new insights" (in en). World Development 109: 413–416. DOI:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.027. ISSN 0305-750X. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Christiaensen (November 2011). "The (evolving) role of agriculture in poverty reduction—An empirical perspective" (in en). Journal of Development Economics 96 (2): 239–254. DOI:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.10.006. Retrieved on 2022-12-17. 
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