Wikipedia

Ralph Ellison

onye edemede America, onye nkatọ edemede, ọkà mmụta na onye edemede (1914-1994)

 

Ralph Ellison photo portrait seated.

Ralph Ellison (Maachi 1, 1913- Eprel 16, 1994) bụ onye edemede America, onye nkatọ akwụkwọ, na ọkà mmụta a maara nke ọma maka akwụkwọ akụkọ ya Invisible Man, nke meriri National Book Award na 1953. [1]

Ellison dere Shadow na Act (1964), nchịkọta ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, mmekọrịta ọha na eze na nke dị egwu, na ịga na Territory (1986).[1] Akwụkwọ akụkọ New York Times kpọrọ ya "n'etiti chi nke akwụkwọ edemede America Parnassus".[2]

E bipụtara akwụkwọ akụkọ mgbe ọ nwụsịrị, Juneteenth, mgbe e jikọtara ya site na ihe edeturu Ellison hapụrụ mgbe ọ nwụrụ.

Ndụ mbido

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Ralph Waldo Ellison, onye aha ya bụ Ralph Waldo Emerson, [1] mụrụ na Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, nye Lewis Alfred Ellison na Ida Millsap, na Maachị 1, 1913. Ọ bụ onye nke abụọ n'ime ụmụ nwoke atọ; Ọkpara Alfred nwụrụ n'oge ọ bụ nwata, na nwanne nwoke nke obere Herbert Maurice (ma ọ bụ Millsap) mụrụ na 1916.[2] Lewis Alfred Ellison, onye nwe obere azụmaahịa na onye na-ahụ maka ihe owuwu, nwụrụ na 1916, mgbe mmerụ ahụ metụtara ọrụ yana ọrụ dara ada.[1][3] Okenye Ellison hụrụ akwụkwọ n'anya, ma hụ ụmụ ya n'anya. Ralph mesịrị chọpụta, dị ka onye toro eto, na nna ya nwere olileanya na ya ga-etolite ghọọ onye na-ede uri.

N'afọ 1921, nne Ellison na ụmụ ya kwagara Gary, Indiana, ebe o nwere nwanne nwoke. Dị ka Ellison si kwuo, nne ya chere na "mụ nwanne m nwoke ga-enwe ohere ka mma iru nwoke ma ọ bụrụ na anyị tolitere n'ebe ugwu. "Mgbe ọ na-achọtaghị ọrụ na nwanne ya nwoke tụfuru ya, ezinụlọ ahụ laghachiri Oklahoma, ebe Ellison rụrụ ọrụ dị ka onye na-arụ ọrụ, nwa okorobịa na-arụ akpụkpọ ụkwụ, onye na-ere nri na họtel, na onye na-enyere dọkịta ezé aka. [3] Site n'aka nna nke enyi ya nọ n'ógbè ahụ, ọ natara nkuzi n'efu maka ịkpọ opi na saxophone, ọ ga-aga n'ihu ịghọ onye isi egwu ụlọ akwụkwọ.[3]

Ida lụghachiri nwunye ugboro atọ mgbe Lewis nwụsịrị.[lower-alpha 2] Otú ọ dị, ndụ ezinụlọ dị ize ndụ, Ralph na-arụkwa ọrụ dị iche iche n'oge ntorobịa ya na ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma iji nyere aka na nkwado ezinụlọ. Mgbe ọ na-aga ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị Douglass, ọ chọtakwara oge ọ ga-egwu n'otu egwuregwu bọọlụ ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ.[1] Ọ gụsịrị akwụkwọ n'ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị na 1931. Ọ rụrụ ọrụ otu afọ ma chọta ego ahụ iji kwụọ ụgwọ opi, na-eji ya egwuri egwu n'ebe ndị na-akụ egwú obodo, na-amụkwa egwú ndị ọzọ. Na Douglass, onye isi Inman E. Page na nwa ya nwanyị, onye nkuzi egwu Zelia N. Breaux, metụtara ya.[4]

Na Tuskegee Institute

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Ellison tinyere akwụkwọ ugboro abụọ maka ịbanye na Tuskegee Institute, ụlọ akwụkwọ mahadum a ma ama na Alabama nke Booker T. Washington tọrọ ntọala.[1] N'ikpeazụ, a nabatara ya na 1933 n'ihi enweghị onye na-akụ opi na ndị egwú ya.[1] Ellison tinyere ụgbọ oloko ibu ibu iji ruo Alabama, n'oge na-adịghịkwa anya ọ chọpụtara na ụlọ ọrụ ahụ adịchaghị mma karịa ụlọ ọrụ ọcha n'ozuzu ya.[3]

Ọnọdụ Ellison si n'èzí na Tuskegee "mechara oghere satirical ya," onye nkatọ Hilton Als kwenyere: "Ịkwụsị na ikuku nke mahadum nke Negritude dị nsọ nyere ya aka ide banyere ya." N'akụkụ Akwụkwọ Nsọ nke Mmadụ Na-adịghị ahụ anya, "ọ na-eleghachi anya azụ na nlelị na obi nkoropụ na ethos sniveling nke chịrị na Tuskegee."

Ngalaba egwu nke Tuskegee bụ ma eleghị anya ngalaba a ma ama n'ụlọ akwụkwọ ahụ, [5] nke onye na-ede egwu bụ William L. Dawson duziri. Onye nkuzi piano nke ngalaba ahụ, Hazel Harrison duziri Ellison. Mgbe ọ na-amụ egwu karịsịa na klas ya, ọ na-eji oge ezumike ya n'ọbá akwụkwọ na ndị oge ochie nke oge a. O kwuru na ịgụ akwụkwọ T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land dị ka oge dị mkpa.[6] N'afọ 1934, ọ malitere ịrụ ọrụ dị ka onye odeakwụkwọ na ọbá akwụkwọ mahadum, ebe ọ gụrụ James Joyce na Gertrude Stein. Onye na-elekọta ọ́bá akwụkwọ Walter Bowie Williams ji ịnụ ọkụ n'obi hapụ Ellison ka ọ kesaa ihe ọmụma ya.

Mmetụta dị ukwuu n'ahụ Ellison bụ onye nkuzi Bekee Morteza Drexel Sprague, onye Ellison mechara raara mkpokọta edemede ya Shadow and Act. O meghere anya Ellison na "ikike nke akwụkwọ dị ka nka dị ndụ" na "ịma mma ọ ga-ejikọta ya na ndụ akwụkwọ."Site na Sprague, Ellison maara nke ọma Mpụ na ntaramahụhụ Fyodor Dostoevsky na Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure, na-ejikọta ya na "ndị dike na-egbuke egbuke, na-ata ahụhụ" nke ọrụ ndị ahụ.

Dị ka nwatakịrị, Ellison gosipụtara ihe ga-aghọ mmasị ndụ ya niile na teknụzụ ọdịyo, malite site na ịhapụ na iwughachi redio, ma mesịa gaa n'ihu na-ewu ma na-ahazi usoro stereo hi-fi dị iche iche dị ka okenye. Ọ tụlere mmasị a na edemede Disemba 1955, "Living With Music", na magazin High Fidelity . [7] Onye ọkà mmụta Ellison bụ John S. Wright na-ekwu na nkà a na ntinye na-apụ apụ nke ngwaọrụ eletrọniki gara n'ihu na-agwa Ellison ụzọ ide ihe na ụdị akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ.[8] Ellison nọgidere na Tuskegee ruo 1936, wee kpebie ịhapụ tupu ọ rụchaa ihe achọrọ maka nzere.[4]

Na New York

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N'ịchọ ịmụ ihe ọkpụkpụ, ọ kwagara New York City na July 5, 1936, wee chọta ebe obibi na YMCA na 135th Street na Harlem, mgbe ahụ "isi obodo omenala ojii America".[1] Ọ zutere Langston Hughes, "Harlem's unofficial diplomat" nke oge ịda mbà n'obi, na otu-dị ka otu n'ime ndị na-ede akwụkwọ ojii a ma ama - onye nwere ike ịdị ndụ site na edemede ya.[1] Hughes ji ọmịiko Kọmunist kpọbatara ya n'ụlọ akwụkwọ oji.[3]

Ọ zutere ọtụtụ ndị na-ese ihe ga-emetụta ndụ ya mgbe e mesịrị, gụnyere onye na-ese egwu Romare Bearden na onye edemede Richard Wright (onye ya na ya ga-enwe mmekọrịta dị ogologo ma dị mgbagwoju anya). Mgbe Ellison dere akwụkwọ nyocha maka Wright, Wright gbara ya ume ide akụkọ ifo dị ka ọrụ. Akụkọ mbụ o bipụtara bụ "Hymie's Bull", nke sitere n'ike mmụọ nsọ nke Ellison na nwanne nna ya na-agagharị n'ụgbọ okporo ígwè n'afọ 1933 iji gaa Tuskegee. Site na 1937 ruo 1944, Ellison nwere ihe karịrị nyocha akwụkwọ 20, yana akụkọ mkpirikpi na isiokwu, nke e bipụtara na magazin ndị dị ka New Challenge na The New Masses.Mas ọhụrụ.

Mgbe ahụ Wright na ndị Kọmunist na-akpakọrịta n'ihu ọha, Ellison na-ebipụta ma na-edezi maka akwụkwọ ndị Kọmunist, n'agbanyeghị na "mmekọrịta ya dị jụụ", dịka ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Carol Polsgrove na Divided Minds si kwuo. Ma Wright na Ellison tụfuru okwukwe ha na Kọmunist Party n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ, mgbe ha chere na nnọkọ ahụ aghọgbula ndị Africa America ma jiri mgbanwe mmekọrịta ọha na eze dochie anya ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị Marxist. N'akwụkwọ ozi e degaara Wright, nke e depụtara n'August 18, 1945, Ellison wepụrụ iwe ya n'ebe ndị ndú pati ahụ nọ: "Ọ bụrụ na ha chọrọ igwu bọl na ndị bourgeoisie, ha ekwesịghị iche na ha nwere ike ịpụ na ya. . . . Ikekwe anyị nwere ike ' t kụrie atom, ma anyị nwere ike, site n'okwu ole na ole ahọpụtara nke ọma, nke edere nke ọma, tipịara unyi ahụ niile na hel." N'ime mgbakasị ahụ nke a, Ellison malitere ide Nwoke Invisible, akwụkwọ akụkọ nke bụ, akụkụ ya, nzaghachi ya nye nraranye nke otu ahụ. "[9] : 66–69    N'afọ 1938, Ellison zutere Rose Araminta Poindexter, nwanyị ji afọ abụọ tọọ ya.Rose Araminta Poindexter bụ onye na-eme ihe nkiri, na-eme na ihe nkiri dịka The Upright Sinner (1931). Poindexter na Ellison lụrụ na ngwụcha 1938. Rose bụ onye na-eme ihe nkiri, ma gaa n'ihu n'ọrụ ya mgbe ha lụsịrị. N'ime nyocha nke onye na-ede akụkọ ndụ Arnold Rampersad banyere ụtọ Ellison n'ime ụmụ nwanyị, ọ na-achọ otu "nke mara mma na nke nwere ọgụgụ isi nke ga-ahụ ya n'anya, sọpụrụ, ma na-erubere ya isi - mana ọ bụghị ịma ọgụgụ isi ya aka. " mbụ ha biri na 312 West 122nd Street, ụlọ Rose, mana ọ kwagara na 453 West 140th Street mgbe ego ya belatara. N'afọ 1941, ya na Sanora Babb nwere mmekọahụ n'oge na-adịghị anya, nke ọ kwupụtara nwunye ya mgbe e mesịrị, na 1943 alụmdi na nwunye ahụ kwụsịrị.[3] Di na nwunye ahụ gbara alụkwaghịm na 1945. Ka ọ na-erule Eprel 2023, Poindexter ka dị ndụ mgbe ọ dị afọ 111.

Na mmalite nke Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ, Ellison bụ 1A site na Sistemụ Ọrụ Nhọrọ nke mpaghara, [1] wee ruo eruo maka nhazi ahụ. Otú ọ dị, e depụtaghị ya. Ka ọ na-erule njedebe nke agha ahụ, ọ debanyere aha na United States Merchant Marine.[2]: 67  Na 1946, ọ lụrụ Fanny McConnell, onye nwere ikike nke aka ya: onye gụsịrị akwụkwọ na Mahadum Iowa nke bụ onye guzobere Negro People's Theatre na Chicago na onye edemede maka Chicago Defender.[3] Mgbe o dere Nwoke Invisible, o nyeere Ellison aka n'ụzọ ego site n'ịrụ ọrụ maka American Medical Center for Burma Frontiers (ọrụ ebere na-akwado ọrụ ozi ala ọzọ ahụike Gordon S. Seagrave [3]). N'afọ 1946, Ellison dere ma dee egwu ahụ maka opekata mpe abụ abụọ, "Flirty" na "Ọ Ga-ewute m naanị ma m mara".[4] Site na 1947 ruo 1951, ọ nwetara ego ụfọdụ na-ede nyocha akwụkwọ mana ọ nọrọ ọtụtụ oge ya na-arụ ọrụ na Nwoke A Na-adịghị ahụ anya. Fanny nyekwara aka pịnye ederede ogologo aka Ellison[3] wee nyere ya aka na-edezi ụdị edemede ahụ ka ọ na-aga n'ihu. [10][11]

E bipụtara ya na 1952, Invisible Man na-enyocha isiokwu nke ọchụchọ mmadụ maka njirimara na ọnọdụ ha na ọha mmadụ, dịka a na-ahụ ya site n'echiche nke onye na-akọ akụkọ mbụ, nwoke Africa America a na-akpọghị aha, nke mbụ na Deep South na New York City nke afọ 1930. N'adịghị ka ndị ọgbọ ya dị ka Richard Wright na James Baldwin, Ellison mepụtara ihe odide ndị na-enweghị mmasị, ndị gụrụ akwụkwọ, ndị na-ekwu okwu, na ndị maara onwe ha. Site n'aka onye na-eme ihe nkiri, Ellison na-enyocha ọdịiche dị n'etiti ụdị agbụrụ dị n'ebe ugwu na ndịda na mmetụta ha na-ewepụ. Onye na-akọ akụkọ ahụ "adịghị ahụ anya" n'echiche ihe atụ, n'ihi na "ndị mmadụ jụrụ ịhụ" ya, ma na-enwekwa ụdị nkewa. Akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ nwekwara okwu ndị a machibidoro iwu dị ka Mmekọahụ n'etiti ndị ikwu na isiokwu esemokwu nke ọchịchị Kọmunist.

Afọ ndị sochirinụ

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Na 1962, onye futurist Herman Kahn weghaara Ellison ka ọ bụrụ onye ndụmọdụ na Hudson Institute na mbọ iji gbasaa oke ya karịa nyocha metụtara nchekwa.

N'afọ 1964, Ellison bipụtara Shadow and Act, nchịkọta edemede, wee malite ịkụzi na Bard College, Mahadum Rutgers na Mahadum Yale, ka ọ na-aga n'ihu na-arụ ọrụ na akwụkwọ akụkọ ya. N'afọ sochirinụ, a tọhapụrụ ntuli aka Book Week nke ndị nkatọ 200, ndị edemede, na ndị editọ nke kwupụtara na Invisible Man bụ akwụkwọ akụkọ kachasị mkpa kemgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ.[12]

Na 1967, Ellison nwetara nnukwu ọkụ ụlọ n'ụlọ okpomọkụ ya dị na Plainfield, Massachusetts, bụ nke o kwuru na ihe karịrị ibe 300 nke akwụkwọ akụkọ nke abụọ ya furu efu. Onye na-achọkarị izu okè banyere nka nke akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ, Ellison kwuru na ịnakwere Award Book nke Mba ya maka Nwoke A Na-adịghị ahụ anya na ya chere na ya emeela "mgbalị na akwụkwọ akụkọ bụ isi" na, n'agbanyeghị onyinye ahụ, akwụkwọ ahụ ejughị ya.[13] Ellison mechara dee ihe karịrị peeji 2,000 nke akwụkwọ akụkọ nke abụọ a mana o dechara ya.[14]

Ellison nwụrụ na Eprel 16, 1994, n'ihi ọrịa kansa pancreatic ma lie ya na crypt na Trinity Church Cemetery na Mausoleum [15] na mpaghara Washington Heights nke Upper Manhattan.

Ihe nrite na mmata

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  Invisible Man meriri 1953 US National Book Award for Fiction.[1]

Ihe nrite ahụ bụ tiketi ya n'ime ụlọ ọrụ edemede America. E mechara nabata ya na American Academy of Arts and Letters, nata ihe nrite onye isi ala abụọ (site na Lyndon Johnson na Ronald Reagan) na ihe nrite steeti site na France. Ọ bụ onye Africa America mbụ nabatara na Century Association [16] ma nye ya nzere Doctorate na Mahadum Harvard. N'ịbụ onye ahụmahụ ya na ndị Communist Party kụrụ afọ n'ala, o jiri aha ọhụrụ ya kwuo maka akwụkwọ dị ka ngwá ọrụ omume ọma.[9]: 70-72 N'afọ 1955, ọ gara Europe, na-eleta ma na-akụzi ihe, na-ebi na Rom, ebe o dere edemede nke pụtara na 1957 Bantam anthology akpọrọ A New Southern Harvest . Robert Penn Warren nọ na Rom n'otu oge ahụ, ndị edemede abụọ ahụ ghọkwara ezigbo enyi.[17] Mgbe e mesịrị, Warren ga-agba Ellison ajụjụ ọnụ banyere echiche ya banyere agbụrụ, akụkọ ihe mere eme, na Civil Rights Movement maka akwụkwọ ya bụ Who Speaks for the Negro? [18] N'afọ 1958, Ellison laghachiri na United States iji were ọnọdụ na-akụzi akwụkwọ America na Russian na Bard College ma malite akwụkwọ akụkọ nke abụọ, Juneteenth . N'ime afọ 1950, ya na enyi ya, onye edemede Albert Murray na-ederịta akwụkwọ ozi. N'akwụkwọ ozi ha, ha kwuru maka mmepe nke ọrụ ha, Civil Rights Movement, na ihe ndị ọzọ na-amasị ha gụnyere jazz. E bipụtara ọtụtụ n'ime ihe ndị a na nchịkọta Trading Twelves (2000).

N'ide edemede banyere ahụmịhe ndị isi ojii na ịhụnanya ya maka egwu jazz, Ellison gara n'ihu na-enweta nnukwu onyinye maka ọrụ ya. N'afọ 1969, ọ natara Presidential Medal of Freedom; n'afọ sochirinụ, e mere ya Chevalier nke Ordre des Arts et des Lettres site na France wee bụrụ onye otu na-adịgide adịgide na ngalaba na Mahadum New York dị ka Albert Schweitzer Prọfesọ nke Humanities, na-eje ozi site na 1970 ruo 1980.

Na 1975, a họpụtara Ellison na American Academy of Arts and Letters, obodo ya nke Oklahoma City kwanyere ya ugwu site na nraranye nke ọbá akwụkwọ Ralph Waldo Ellison. N'ịga n'ihu na nkuzi, Ellison bipụtara ọtụtụ edemede, na na 1984, ọ natara nrite Langston Hughes nke New York City College. Na 1985, e nyere ya ihe nrite National Arts.[1] [2] Na 1986, e bipụtara Ịga na Territory ya; Nke a bụ nchịkọta edemede iri na asaa nke gụnyere nghọta n'ime onye edemede ndịda William Faulkner na enyi Ellison Richard Wright, yana egwu Duke Ellington na ntinye aka nke ndị America America na njirimara mba America.[19]

 
Ihe ncheta Ralph Ellison n'ihu 730 Riverside Drive, New York City. Afọ ọmụmụ bụ afọ na-ezighi ezi Ellison ga-enyekarị

N'afọ 1992, e nyere Ellison ihe nrite pụrụ iche site na Anisfield-Wolf Book Awards; ihe osise ya gụnyere ọrụ dị ka onye na-ese ihe, onye na-eti egwu, onye na'ese foto, na prọfesọ kọleji yana mmepụta edemede ya. Ọ kụziri na Bard College, Mahadum Rutgers, Mahadim Chicago, na Mahadum New York. Ellison bụkwa onye otu charter nke Fellowship of Southern Writers.

Ihe nketa na akwụkwọ ndị e bipụtara mgbe ọ nwụsịrị

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Mgbe Ellison nwụsịrị, a chọtara ọtụtụ ihe odide n'ụlọ ya, nke mere ka e bipụta Flying Home na Akụkọ ndị ọzọ na 1996. Na 1999, e bipụtara akwụkwọ akụkọ ya nke abụọ, Juneteenth, n'okpuru nchịkọta akụkọ nke John F. Callahan, prọfesọ na Lewis & Clark College na Ellison's executor. Ọ bụ condensation dị peeji 368 nke ihe karịrị peeji 2,000 nke Ellison dere n'ime afọ 40.[1] Ebipụtara ihe odide niile nke akwụkwọ akụkọ a ezughị oke na Jenụwarị 26, 2010, site n'aka ọbá akwụkwọ Modern, n'okpuru aha ụbọchị atọ tupu agbapụ agbapụ... [20]

Na Febụwarị 18, 2014, USPS wepụtara stampụ 91¢ iji sọpụrụ Ralph Ellison na usoro Literary Arts ya. [21][22]

A raara ogige ntụrụndụ dị na 150th Street na Riverside Drive na Harlem (n'akụkụ 730 Riverside Street, ebe obibi Ellison site na mmalite afọ 1950 ruo ọnwụ ya) nye Ellison na Mee 1, 2003. N'ogige ntụrụndụ ahụ, e nwere ihe nchara dị mita 15 site na mita 8 nke nwere "onye a tụrụ atụ" nke akwụkwọ ya bụ Invisible Man kpaliri.[23]

Akwụkwọ

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  • Nwoke a na-adịghị ahụ anya (Random House, 1952).  
  • Flying Home na Akụkọ Ndị Ọzọ (Random House, 1996).   ISBN 0679457046; gụnyere akụkọ dị mkpirikpi "A Party Down at the Square" 
  • Juneteenth (Random House, 1999).   ISBN 0394464575
  • Ụbọchị Atọ Tupu Agha... (Ọbá Akwụkwọ Ọgbara Ọhụrụ, 2010).   ISBN 978-0375759536

Nchịkọta edemede

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  • Shadow and Act (Random House, 1964).   ISBN 0679760008
  • Ịga n'ókèala (Random House, 1986).   ISBN 0394540506
  • The Collected Essays of Ralph Ellison (Modern Library, 1995).   ISBN 0679601767
  • Ibi na Egwú: Ralph Ellison's Jazz Writings (Modern Library, 2002).   ISBN 0375760237

Akwụkwọ ozi

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  • Akwụkwọ ozi ndị a họọrọ nke Ralph Ellison. Eds. John F Callahan na Marc C. Conner (Random House, 2019).    ISBN 978-0812998528
  • Azụmaahịa Iri na Abụọ: Akwụkwọ ozi ahọpụtara nke Ralph Ellison na Albert Murray (Modern Library, 2000).   ISBN 0375503676

Hụkwa

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  • 1953 n'akwụkwọ

Ihe edeturu

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Edensibia

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "National Book Awards – 1953". National Book Foundation. (With acceptance speech by Ellison, essay by Neil Baldwin from the 50-year publications, and essays by Charles Johnson and four others from the Awards' 60-year anniversary blog. Retrieved March 31, 2012)
  2. ↑ Grime. "How an 'Invisible Man' Was Seduced by His Visibility", The New York Times, 2007-05-16. Retrieved on 2016-03-17.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Als 2007
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Rampersad (2007). Ralph Ellison: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0375408274. 
  5. ↑ Bieze (2008). Booker T. Washington and the Art of Self-representation (in en). Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1433100109. 
  6. ↑ (Spring 1955) "The Art of Fiction". The Paris Review. Retrieved on April 4, 2017. 
  7. ↑ Ellison. "Living With Music", Shadow and Act, Random House, pp. 187–93.
  8. ↑ Wright (Summer 2003). "'Jack-the-Bear' Dreaming: Ellison's Spiritual Technologies". Boundary 2 30. DOI:10.1215/01903659-30-2-175. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Polsgrove (2001). Divided Minds: Intellectuals and the Civil Rights Movement. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393020134. 
  10. ↑ Martin (December 1, 2005). Fanny Ellison, 93, Dies; Helped Husband Edit 'Invisible Man'. The New York Times. Retrieved on April 4, 2017.
  11. ↑ Bradley (2010). Ralph Ellison in Progress : The Making and Unmaking of One Writer's Great American Novel. New haven: Yale University Press, 22. ISBN 978-0300147131. OCLC 5559544694. 
  12. ↑ "Ralph Ellison, 80, Dies", The Washington Post, April 17, 1994. Retrieved on September 21, 2018.
  13. ↑ Acceptance Speech: Ralph Ellison, Winner of the 1953 Fiction Award for Invisible Man. nationalbook.org. National Book Foundation. Archived from the original on September 28, 2018. Retrieved on March 31, 2012.
  14. ↑ "The Invisible Manuscript", The Washington Post. Retrieved on July 20, 2014.
  15. ↑ Rampersad (April 24, 2007). Ralph Ellison. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 9780307267320. 
  16. ↑ The Visible Ellison – The New York Sun. nysun.com. Retrieved on August 3, 2017.
  17. ↑ Ealy (Spring 2006). "'A Friendship That Has Meant So Much': Robert Penn Warren and Ralph W. Ellison". The South Carolina Review 38 (2): 162–172. 
  18. ↑ Ralph Ellison. Robert Penn Warren's Who Speaks for the Negro? Archive. Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities, Vanderbilt University. Retrieved on January 21, 2015.
  19. ↑ Wideman. "What Is Afro, What Is American (Book Review of Going to the Territory)", The New York Times, August 3, 1986. Retrieved on April 4, 2017.
  20. ↑ Three Days Before The Shooting.... Random House. Retrieved on January 26, 2010.
  21. ↑ 2014 USPS New Issues Calendar. Ralph Ellison 91¢ Three Ounce Rate. Stamp News Now (2014). Retrieved on February 18, 2014.
  22. ↑ (April 21, 2014) "Scott new Issues Update". Linn's Stamp News 87 (4460): 60–61. ISSN 0161-6234. 
  23. ↑ Riverside Park Monuments – Ralph Ellison Memorial : NYC Parks. nycgovparks.org. Retrieved on October 30, 2016.

Njikọ mpụga

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  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]Akwụkwọ EnsiklopedianaỤgbọ Mmiri Wayback (nke e debere n'October 24, 2004)
  • Ralph Ellison: Njem America, California Newsreel
  • Mkpụrụ obi nke ndị mmadụ: Ide America's Story, ederede ederede sitere na American Library Association
  • Petri Liukkonen "Ralph Ellison". Akwụkwọ na ndị edemede.
  • The Ralph Ellison Collection, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of CongressỌ́bá Akwụkwọ nke Congress
  • FBI faịlụ na Ralph Ellison, site na Internet Archive
  • Ralph Ellison, American Masters, PBS.org
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]Encyclopedia nke Oklahoma Akụkọ Ihe Mere Eme na Ọdịbendị
  • Nchịkọta nke Minds nkewa: Intellectuals na Civil Rights Movement nke Carol Polsgrove, site na The New York Times
  • Ụlọ oriri na ọṅụṅụ Ellison, A Tribute Portfolio
  • Ralph EllisonnaIMDb
Ewepụtara na https://ig.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Ellison&oldid=177794