Wikipedia

Onye ọrụ ugbo

Onye ọrụ ubi bụ onye (onye ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ onye ọrụ ugbo) nke bi n'ala nke onye nwe ụlọ nwere. Ọrụ ugbo nke ndị nwe ụlọ bụ usoro mmepụta ugbo nke ndị nwe ala na-atụnye ala ha ma na-ejikarị ego ha na-arụ ọrụ na njikwa, ebe ndị ọrụ ugbo na-arụ ọrụ na-atụnye ọrụ ha yana mgbe ụfọdụ ego na njikwa dịgasị iche iche. Dabere na nkwekọrịta ahụ, ndị nwe ụlọ nwere ike ịkwụ onye nwe ya ụgwọ ma ọ bụ n'otu akụkụ nke ngwaahịa ahụ, na ego ma ọ bụ na ngwakọta. Ikike onye nwe ụlọ nwere n'elu ala, ụdị, na usoro nke ịkwụ ụgwọ dị iche iche n'ofe sistemu (n'ọdịdị ala na n'usoro oge). N'ụfọdụ sistemu, enwere ike ịchụpụ onye nwe ụlọ n'ọchịchọ (ụlọ obibi ma ọchọrọ); N'ime ndị ọzọ, onye nwe ala na onye nwe ụlọ binyere aka n'akwụkwọ nkwekọrịta maka ọnụ ọgụgụ afọ a kapịrị ọnụ (ụlọ obibi maka afọ ma ọ bụ indenture). N'ọtụtụ mba mepere emepe taa, opekata mpe, etinyere ụfọdụ mmachi na ikike ndị nwe ụlọ ịchụpụ ndị bi n'ụlọ n'okpuru ọnọdụ nkịtị.

Onye ọrụ ugbo bi na veranda ihu ya, n'ebe ndịda Muskogee, Oklahoma (1939)

England na Wales

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N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, obodo ime obodo jiri nhazi ọkwa atọ nke ndị nwe ala (ndị ama ama, gentry, yeomanry), ndị ọrụ ugbo bi na ụlọ, na ndị ọrụ ugbo. Na mbụ, a maara ndị ọrụ ugbo bi n'ụlọ dị ka ndị ọrụ ugbo. N'okpuru iwu Anglo-Norman, ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ndị niile bi n'ụlọ nwere njikọ n'ala ahụ, yabụ bụrụkwa ndị nzuzu, mana mgbe ụkọ ọrụ nke Black Death mere na etiti narị afọ nke 14, ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị bi n'ụlọ n'efu mụbara nke ukwuu.[1] Ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ ugbo bi n'ụlọ ghọrọ ọgaranya na mmekọrịta ọha na eze, ma were ọtụtụ ndị ọrụ were na-elekọta ihe karịrị otu ugbo. Mgbazinye ụlọ nwere ike ịdị na-adịgide adịgide[2] ma ọ bụ ndị nwe ya na-atụgharị ya.[3] Cottiers (cotagers) nwere obere ala.[1]

Narị afọ nke 17 ruo na mmalite narị afọ nke 19 hụrụ uto nke nnukwu ala na ohere nke onye ọrụ ugbo ijide ala na-abụghị site n'ụlọ obibi belatara nke ukwuu, [5] [6] n'ihi na na narị afọ nke 19, ihe dị ka 90% A na-akwụ ụgwọ nke ala ubi na ihe ejikọrọ, n'agbanyeghị na ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị a gbadara nke ọma mgbe Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ gasịrị, ruo ihe dị ka 60% na 1950 na naanị 35% nke ala ubi na 1994.[7] Ọnụego ụtụ isi nke ihe nketa dị elu n'oge agha gachara butere nbibi ma ọ bụ mbelata ọtụtụ ụlọ buru ibu,[8] na-enye ọtụtụ ndị nwe ụlọ ohere ịzụta ihe ha nwere n'ọnụ ahịa dị mma..[2]

Emebere iwu 1948 ama ama n'oge nri nri oge agha ka na-arụ ọrụ ma chọọ ịkwado itinye ego ogologo oge site n'aka ndị nwe ụlọ site n'inye ha nchekwa ndụ oge niile. N'okpuru Iwu Agriculture (Ọdịiche Dị iche iche) Act 1976, agbakwunyere nchekwa maka ndị di na nwunye na ndị ikwu nke ndị bi n'ụlọ maka ihe abụọ, na-enye na ha na-enweta ọtụtụ ego ha na-enweta site na njide ruo afọ ise. Agbanyeghị, ewepụrụ ikike ịnọchite anya maka ụlọ obibi ọhụrụ na 1984[9] na nke a jikọtara ya na Iwu Agricultural Holdings Act 1986. Iwu abụọ a nyekwara iwu maka ikpebi ụgwọ ụlọ site na usoro mkpezi ikpe.[7][10]. Iwu 1986 kpuchiri ụgwọ ụlọ n'elu ala ubi ebe a na-eji ala ahụ maka ahia ma ọ bụ azụmahịa yana nkọwa nke "ọrụ ugbo" na ngalaba 96(1) zuru oke iji tinye ụdị dị iche iche nke n'onwe ha abụghị ọrụ ugbo mana e weere ya ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụ nkwado. maka oru ugbo (dika osisi osisi). Isi ihe dị na koodu ahụ bụ iwepụta ihe mgbochi dị mgbagwoju anya na ikike onye nwe ụlọ inye ọkwa ka ọ kwụsị ma na-atụgharịkwa mgbazinye oge a kapịrị ọnụ ka ọ bụrụ ụlọ obibi kwa afọ na njedebe nke oge a kapịrị ọnụ. N'ịgbakwụnye, enwere atụmatụ nleba anya n'otu ụlọ nke dị na ngalaba 12

O siri ike inweta ụlọ obibi ọhụrụ n'ihi na ndị nwe ụlọ achọghị inwe onye na-akwụ ụgwọ site na Iwu 1986 na 1995, gọọmentị nke ụbọchị ahụ, site na nkwado nke ụlọ ọrụ ụlọ ọrụ, wepụtara koodu ọhụrụ na-elekwasị anya n'ahịa n'ụdị Iwu Ọrụ Ugbo 1995. Nchebe nke Iwu 1986 ka dị n'ihe gbasara ụlọ obibi nke e mepụtara tupu ịdị adị nke Iwu 1995 na maka ụlọ obibi ndị ahụ dabara n'ime ngalaba 4 nke Iwu 1995. Maka ụlọ obibi ndị ọzọ niile e nyere na ma ọ bụ mgbe 1 Septemba 1995 gasịrị, iwu ha dị n'ime usoro Iwu 1995.

A gbanwere Iwu ahụ site na 18 Ọktoba 2006 site na Iwu Nchịkwa (Agricultural Tenancies) (England na Wales) 2006 SI 2006/2805, nke nwekwara mgbanwe na Iwu 1986. Nkwado ndị e nyere mgbe 18 Ọktoba 2006 gasịrị n'elu ala ugbo eji eme azụmahịa ma ọ bụ azụmaahịa ga-adaba n'ime nchebe dị oke ala nke Iwu 1995 ka ha wee nwee ike ịnụ ụtọ (ma ọ bụrụhaala na okwu ahụ karịrị afọ abụọ ma ọ bụ enwere nkwekọrịta kwa afọ) ọkwa dịkarịa ala ọnwa iri na abụọ edere iji kwụsị, gụnyere n'ihe gbasara okwu a kapịrị ọnụ. Enwere maka ụlọ niile dị n'ime Iwu ahụ ikike ndị bi na ya wepụrụ ihe na ụlọ (nkebi nke 8) yana ịkwụ ụgwọ maka mmelite (nkebi ya nke atọ). Ndokwa nyocha nke ụlọ na Akụkụ nke Abụọ nwere ike ịbụ isiokwu nke ịhọrọ karịa ka ọ dị na mbụ. Esemokwu n'okpuru Iwu ahụ na-abụkarị, site na usoro nke Akụkụ nke Anọ, isiokwu nke ikpebi iwu nke usoro nke Iwu Arbitration nke 1996.

Ọchịchị dị ugbu a n'okpuru Iwu 1995 maka ịchịkwa ụgwọ, nke a maara dị ka Farm Business Tenancies, na-enye ohere ịmepụta ọmụrụ nwa doro anya na nke a na-akwụsị ngwa ngwa, ma ọ bụ site na ụgwọ oge ma ọ bụ oge a kapịrị ọnụ. N'ime usoro nke ịkpa anụmanụ na iji ala eme ihe na mmelite, mmetụta ogologo oge nke Farm Business Tenancy na ala Britain egosighi. ndị nwe ya na ndị ọzọ na-ekwuchitere ụlọ ọrụ ahụ buru amụma na Iwu 1995 ga-emepụta ohere maka ndị ọhụrụ na-akwụ ụgwọ site n'ikwe ka nnukwu mpaghara nke ndị ọhụrụ na nke a emeghị n'omume dịka ọtụtụ ndị nwe ala nọgidere na-akwado ịkekọrịta ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ nkwekọrịta njikwa karịa ndị ọrụ ugbo dị ugbu a na ọtụtụ n'ime ndị ọrụ ugbe dị ugbu a, mgbe ndị nwe ala na-enweta ala dị elu karịa ka onye nwe ala nwere ike ịkwụ ụgwọ.[3]

Canada

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Site na narị afọ nke iri na itoolu gaa n'ihu, ndị ọrụ ugbo si mba British Isles bịa Canada ọ bụghị naanị na United States of America.[4]

Ireland

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Ruo ihe dị ka afọ 1900, ndị nwe ụlọ na-ejide ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime Ireland, ihe dị ka 97% na 1870, ma gbazite ndị ọrụ ugbo bi n'ụlọ bụ ndị ga-akwụ ụgwọ ụlọ nye ndị nwe ụlọ na ụtụ isi na Ụka ​​Ireland na State. Ọtụtụ n'ime ndị mmadụ enweghị ohere ịnweta ala. 1.5% nke ndị bi nwere 33.7% nke agwaetiti ahụ, na 50% nke mba ahụ nọ n'aka naanị ezinụlọ 750. Ịnọghị na-abụkarị ihe na-emebi ọganihu obodo ahụ. Ndị na-akwụ ụgwọ na-agbazinye obere ogige kwa afọ site n'aka ndị ọrụ ugbo obodo na-akwụ ha ụgwọ site na ọrụ ọrụ site na sistemụ, nke a maara dị ka conacre, ọtụtụ na-enweghị ikike mgbazinye ma ọ bụ ikike ala. Ndị obere ndị Irish enweghị ike ịmata ọdịiche dị na obere ụlọ ndị England. [5][6]

Mmetọ nke ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ mere ka ọtụtụ ndị na-akwaga na United States na mpaghara ndị ahụ ma bụrụ isi ihe dị n'ime Home Rule Movement.[7] Ha mekwara ka mmekọrịta Protestant na Katọlik sie ike, ọ bụ ezie na e nwere ihe ndị dị ịrịba ama nke imekọ ihe ọnụ na mgbalị mgbanwe dị ka Tenant Right League nke afọ 1850. [8][9] Mgbe oke ụnwụ ahụ gasịrị, ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ bụ ndị kasị ukwuu n'ime ndị mmadụ.[10] Enweghị afọ ojuju dugara na Agha Ala nke 1870s gaa n'ihu, Iwu Landlord na Tenant (Ireland) 1870, ntọala nke Land League 1879 iji guzobe ụgwọ ezumike nká na nkwụsi ike nke oge. Mgbanwe ahụ rụrụ ọrụ dị mkpa n'ịdị n'otu nke mba na obodo ukwu na ịmepụta njirimara mba na-adịbeghị. [11][12][9]

The Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Act 1870 stands out as the first attempt to resolve problems of tenants rights in Ireland[7] and the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 went even further to inspire campaigners even in Wales. The Purchase of Land (Ireland) Act 1885 followed, finally the great breakthrough after the successful 1902 Land Conference, the enactment of the Land Purchase (Ireland) Act 1903 whereby the state-financed tenants to completely buy out their landlords. Under the Act of 1903 and the consequential Act of 1909, the national situation was completely transformed. When in March 1920, the Irish Estate Commission reviewed the development since 1903 under these Acts, they estimated that 83 million sterling had been advanced for Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Convert/data' not found. transferred, whilst a further Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Convert/data' not found. were pending costing 24 million sterling. By 1914, 75% of occupiers were buying out their landlords, mostly under the two Acts. In all, under the pre-UK Land Acts over 316,000 tenants purchased their holdings amounting to Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Convert/data' not found. out of a total of 20 million in the country.

On the formation of the Irish Free State in 1922, the Irish Land Commission was reconstituted by the Land Law (Commission) Act, 1923. The commission had acquired and supervised the transfer of up to Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Convert/data' not found. of farmland between 1885 and 1920 where the freehold was assigned under mortgage to tenant farmers and farm workers. The focus had been on the compulsory purchase of untenanted estates so that they could be divided into smaller units for local families. In 1983, the Commission ceased acquiring land; this signified the start of the end of the commission's reform of Irish land ownership, though freehold transfers of farmland still had to be signed off by the Commission into the 1990s. The commission was dissolved in March 1999.

Japan

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Na Japan, ndị nwe ala nyere ezinụlọ ndị ọrụ ugbo ala ha iji jikwaa ya.[13] N'Oge Meiji, ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ na Japan bụ ndị ọrụ ugpo n'ọdịnala kama ịbụ ndị isi obodo ma ọ bụ ndị ọchụnta ego site na okike, na-akwụ maka ọrụ ha. Ihe dị ka pasent iri atọ nke ala bụ ndị bi na ya. Ọtụtụ akụkụ nke feudalism Tokugawa gara n'ihu.[14] Mgbe WWII gasịrị, Iwu Mgbanwe Ala Ugbo nke 1946 machibidoro ndị nwe ala na-anọghị, ikesa ala ọzọ ma nye ndị bi na ya ohere ịzụta. Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1950, ọ fọrọ nke nta ka ọ kpochapụ mmekọrịta onye nwe ụlọ na onye bi na ya.[15]

Scandinavia

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N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, n'agbanyeghị na Norway bụ ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ mpaghara Danish ruo ihe fọrọ nke ọ bụrụ afọ 300 tupu 1814, mba Denmark, Norway, na Sweden (na Finland) nwere ụzọ dị iche iche maka ala.[16][17]

Norway

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Ebe obibi Husmann si Hof

A maara onye ọrụ ugbo na Norway dị ka Husmann (ọtụtụ: husmenn) ma bụrụ ihe a na-ahụkarị n'etiti narị afọ nke 19 mgbe ha mejupụtara ihe dị ka otu ụzọ n'ụzọ anọ nke ndị bi na mba ahụ. Ndị nwe ala ha, ndị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ ndị nwe ala, na-achọsi ndị a ike. Ihe ka ọtụtụ n'oge ọrụ nke husmann na-ejikarị ọrụ maka onye nwe ụlọ, na-ahapụ ya obere oge iji rụọ ọrụ n'ala nke ya ma ọ bụ karịa ọnọdụ nke ya. N'ihi ya, ọ bụ ezie na ndị husmenn nweere onwe ha ịhapụ ala ahụ n'oge ọ bụla, ọnọdụ akụ na ụba ha dara ogbenye mere ka ha bụrụ "ndị ohu akụ na ụba". Enweghị ala nke ha mekwara ka ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ ghara iru eru ịtụ vootu dịka Iwu Norway si dị n'oge ahụ. Ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ na mba ahụ toro na narị afọ nke 19, site na 48,571 na 1825 ruo 65,060 na 1855, ọnụ ọgụgụ nke ikpeazụ na-anọchite anya ịdị elu nke ọnụ ọgụgụ Husmann na Norway, ọtụtụ n'ime ha bi n'akụkụ ọwụwa anyanwụ nke mba ahụ. N'ihi ọnọdụ akụ na ụba na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya siri ike na Norway, ọtụtụ ndị Norwegian husmenn kwagara Canada na United States na narị afọ nke 19. Mgbe Mgbanwe nke 1848 gasịrị, Marcus Thrane weghaara ebumnuche nke husmenn. Thrane lụrụ ọgụ maka ikike ndị husmenn n'ụlọ ma gbaa ha ume ịkwaga mba ọzọ ma chọọ ọganihu ka mma na mba ọzọ. Ọnụ ọgụgụ nke husmenn malitere ịda na ọkara nke abụọ nke narị afọ nke iri na itoolu, na 1910 ha mejupụtara ihe na-erughị 5% nke ndị Norway.[18]

Okwu torpare / torppari (Swedish / Finnish maka crofter) na-ezo aka n'ụdị dịtụ iche nke ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ, nke na-adịchaghị nchebe karịa ihe nketa dị ka åbo mana mgbe ụfọdụ na nkwekọrịta ruo afọ 50. Nkwekọrịta ahụ, dabere na ezi uche onye nwe ala, n'omume a na-ebufe nwa nwoke ma ọ bụ nwanyị di ya nwụrụ.

Ọnọdụ ha na-abụkarị nke dara ogbenye mana, n'adịghị ka na Denmark, ha nweere onwe ha ịpụ mgbe niile. A na-akwụkarị ụgwọ ịgbazite ya n'ụdị ọrụ. Ha ga-arụ ọrụ n'ala nke ha nakwa nke onye ọrụ ugbo nwere ala (bonde), onye a ma ama ma ọ bụ ndị ọzọ. N'akụkụ ụfọdụ ọnọdụ ha mere ka ọ dị mfe ịmasị ha. Uto nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ na mgbanwe ala (enskiftet) nyere aka na mmụba nke narị afọ nke 19 nke crofts mana, ọkachasị na Sweden, kwa na mgbanwe site na ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ gaa na ndị ọrụ ọrụ ugbo (statare) na-akwụ ọrụ na nkwekọrịta otu afọ, na-akwụ ya ụgwọ.

Ndị edemede na ndị edemede Sweden na Finland a ma ama kọwara ndụ nke torpare na statare dị ka Ivar Lo-Johansson, Jan Fridegård, Väinö Linna (N'okpuru trilogy North Star) na Moa Martinson. E wepụrụ usoro Statare na 1918 (Finland) na 1945 (Sweden), usoro Torpare ji nwayọọ nwayọọ.[19][20]

Scotland

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Scotland nwere usoro iwu nke ya na iwu dị n'ebe ahụ dị iche na nke England na Wales. Ma AHA 1986 ma ọ bụ ATA 1995 anaghị emetụta na Scotland. Iwu dị mkpa maka Scotland bụ Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 2003 na mmezigharị ndị a na The Public Services Reform (Agricultural Holdings) (Scotlands) Order 2011, The Agricultural Holdants (Amendment) (Scottland) Act 2012 na The Agricultural holdings (Scottish) 2003 Remedial Order 2014. Ndị a nọchiri iwu gara aga na Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 1991 na Agriculture (Scotlands) Act 1948. [21]

Maka Scotland lee Crofting, ụzọ ọdịnala na nke e guzobere ogologo oge nke ndị na-akwụ ụgwọ na ọrụ ugbo.

United States

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Ọrụ ugbo ndị bi na US dị mkpa site na 1870 ruo ugbu a. Ndị bi na ya na-ewekarị ngwá ọrụ na anụmanụ nke ha. Ruo n'ókè ahụ, ọ dị iche na ịbụ onye na-ekere òkè, nke bụ onye ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ nke na-adịghị enye ego ma jiri ihe ọkụkụ kwụọ ụgwọ.

Onye a na-akwụ ụgwọ bụ onye ọrụ ugbo n'agbanyeghị na ọ nwere ike ibi n'ụlọ ahụ ma nwee ikike dị ukwuu n'ọrụ ugbo, dị ka onye isi ọrụ. Onye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo bụ onye na-akwụ ụgwọ n'ugbo nke na-akwụ ego mgbazinye na akụkụ (ọkara) nke ihe ọkụkụ ọ na-azụlite ma na-eweta obere ọrụ na ọrụ ma e wezụga ọrụ ezinụlọ ya; onye nwe ụlọ na-enyekarị ngwaahịa ọrụ, ngwá ọrụ, fatịlaịza, ụlọ, mmanụ, na mkpụrụ, ma na-enyekwa ndụmọdụ na nlekọta mgbe niile.

Ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ na North bụ n'akụkọ ihe mere eme nzọụkwụ na "ubube ọrụ ugbo" site na aka a na-akwụ ọrụ ma ọ bụ onye na-ekere òkè nke ndị ọrụ ugbo na'anya na-enweta ahụmịhe na isi ego zuru ezu iji zụta ala (ma ọ bụ zụta ụmụnne ha mgbe e ketara ugbo). [22]

Ihe dị ka ụzọ abụọ n'ụzọ atọ nke ndị na-ekere òkè bụ ndị ọcha, ndị ọzọ bụ ndị ojii. Ndị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo, ndị kasị daa ogbenye n'ime ndị ogbenye, haziri maka ọnọdụ ka mma. Ndị Southern Tenant Farmers Union jikọtara agbụrụ mere ka ndị na-ekere òkè nweta uru n'afọ ndị 1930. Sharecropping belatara na 1940s n'ihi Great Depression, ugbo machineration, na ihe ndị ọzọ.[23]

Ọnọdụ Black Belt

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Na Black Belt na South America ruo n'etiti narị afọ nke 20, usoro ọrụ ugbo kachasị na-emetụta ndị nwe ala ọcha na ndị ọrụ ugbo Africa-America. Obere ego gbanwere aka. Ụlọ akụ ole na ole dị n'ógbè ahụ dị obere ma ego dị ụkọ ma a ghaghị ichekwa ya maka ụtụ isi. Ndị nwe ala chọrọ ọrụ dị ukwuu n'oge owuwe ihe ubi iji kpụọ ihe ọkụkụ ego, ogho.[24] Atụmatụ a na-ahụkarị bụ ịkewa ubi ochie n'ime obere ugbo ndị e kenyere ndị bi na ya. N'afọ niile, ndị bi na ya biri n'efu. Ha lekọtara ubi nke ha. Kwa izu, ha na-azụta nri na ihe ndị ọzọ site na ụlọ ahịa obodo. N'oge owuwe ihe ubi, ndị bi na ya na-ewepụta ogho ahụ, ma nyefee ya ndị nwe ala. Ha rere ogho n'ahịa mba ahụ ma jiri akụkụ nke ego ahụ kwụọ ụgwọ ha ji ụlọ ahịa obodo ahụ. Usoro ahụ malitere ọzọ. Ndị nwe ala na-arụkwa ụfọdụ n'ime ala ahụ n'onwe ha, na-eji ọrụ ojii a kwụrụ ụgwọ ego. Ndị nwe ala nwere ike ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị niile, ma lụọ ọgụ siri ike megide mmemme ọdịmma gọọmentị nke ga-enye ego nke ga-emebi usoro na-enweghị ego. Ndị na-akọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Lee Alston na Joseph Ferrie (1999) kọwara usoro ahụ dị ka nkwekọrịta na-abụghị nke a na-ahụkarị na:

onye were mmadụ n'ọrụ na onye ọrụ site n'inye ụlọ, nlekọta ahụike, na ọrụ ndị ọzọ na ụgwọ ọrụ ego. N'etiti ya, ọ na-ekwe nkwa ọrụ zuru oke maka onye ọrụ ugbo. Ọ bụ ezie na ntụziaka nke onye ọrụ ugbo gbochiri ya, ndị ọrụ na nzaghachi nwetara ụfọdụ nkwụsi ike akụ na ụba, gụnyere netwọk nchekwa ọha na eze, ịnweta ego, na nchebe anụ ahụ na ọha mmadụ na-eme ihe ike.[25]

Ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ na-enwekarị ndị njikwa ugbo na ndị na-elekọta ọrụ ha. Na 1907, dịka ọmụmaatụ, J. H. Netterville malitere ọrụ maka ụlọ ọrụ Panola, azụmahịa ọrụ ugbo nke William Mackenzie Davidson guzobere na mpaghara ọrụ ugbo bara ọgaranya nke St. Joseph na Tensas Parish na ugwu ọwụwa anyanwụ Louisiana na mba Mississippi River Delta. N'oge ọ na-eto eto, Panola na-achịkwa ihe dị ka puku hekta iri na otu, ụzọ abụọ n'ụzọ atọ a kụrụ na ogho na nke ọzọ n'ụzọ nke atọ na ọka. Netterville ghọrọ onye isi njikwa nke ihe onwunwe Panola atọ bara uru nke ukwuu, Balmoral, Blackwater, na Wyoming plantations dị nso na Newellton, nke ọ na-elekọta ezinụlọ 125 ndị ọrụ ugbo Africa-America, na obere esemokwu na nnukwu ịdị mfe, dị ka akụkọ sitere n'oge ahụ si kwuo.[26]

Latin America

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Maka ndị ọrụ ugbo na-akwụ ụgwọ na ndokwa ndị ọzọ nwere ala na Latin America, lee ndị ọrụ ugbe # Latin American.

Hụkwa

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Ihe edeturu

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  1. ↑ Lang (2001). Notes of a Potato Watcher, Texas A&M University Agriculture Series. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1585441384. 
  2. ↑ Gallent, Nick (2008). "Part 3: The Needs of Rural Communities: Chapter 6, Community Change", Introduction to Rural Planning. London: Routledge, 141–163, page 148. ISBN 978-0-415-42996-2.  citing Woods, Michael (2005). Contesting Rurality: Politics in the British Countryside. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 31–32. ISBN 978-0-7546-3025-8. 
  3. ↑ Gibbard, Ravenscroft and Reeves (1997). Agricultural Tenancy Reform: The End of Law; or a New Popular Culture?. Reading University. Retrieved on 24 June 2010.
  4. ↑ Bicha (1965). "The Plains Farmer and the Prairie Province Frontier, 1897-1914". Journal of Economic History 25 (2): 263–270. DOI:10.1017/S0022050700056655. 
  5. ↑ Winstanley (1984). Ireland and the Land Question 1800-1922. London: Methuen. ISBN 0416374204. 
  6. ↑ Clark (1978). "The Importance of Agrarian Classes: Agrarian Class Structure and Collective Action in Nineteenth-Century Ireland". British Journal of Sociology 29 (1): 22–40. DOI:10.2307/589217. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Kearney (1989). The British Isles: A History of Four Nations. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521334209.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "kearney" defined multiple times with different content
  8. ↑ Miller (1985). Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195035941. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Connolly (1997). "Culture, Identity and Tradition", In Search of Ireland: A Cultural Geography. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415150078. 
  10. ↑ Drudy (1982). Ireland: Land, Politics, and People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052124577X. 
  11. ↑ Brockliss (1997). A Union of Multiple Identities: The British Isles, c1750-c1850. New York: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719050464. 
  12. ↑ Biagini (2007). British Democracy and Irish Nationalism, 1876-1906. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521841764. 
  13. ↑ Smith [1954] (1990). The Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan, Reprint, Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804705305. 
  14. ↑ Norman (2000). Japan's Emergence As a Modern State: Political and Economic Problems of the Meiji Period, 60th anniversary, Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 0774808225. 
  15. ↑ Hane (1982). Peasants, Rebels, Women, and Outcastes: The Underside of Modern Japan. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 0394519639. 
  16. ↑ Tønnesson (1981). "Tenancy, Freehold and Enclosure in Scandinavia from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century". Scandinavian Journal of History 6 (1–4): 191–206. DOI:10.1080/03468758108578990. 
  17. ↑ Høgsæt (1992). "'Their Ancestral Lands' – Succession Rights of Norwegian Tenants in the 16th and 17th Centuries". Scandinavian Journal of History 17 (2–3): 167–173. DOI:10.1080/03468759208579235. 
  18. ↑ Blegen (1931). Norwegian Migration to America 1825-1860. Northfield, Minnesota: The Norwegian-American Historical Association. 
  19. ↑ Rasila V. 1970, Torpparikysymyksen ratkaisuvaihe (in Finnish)
  20. ↑ Bra Böckers Lexikon, 1980 (in Swedish)
  21. ↑ Agricultural tenancies: Overview of the legislation 1948 to 1995. HM Revenue and Customs. Retrieved on 24 June 2010.
  22. ↑ Donald L. Winters, "Tenant farming in Iowa, 1860-1900: a study of the terms of rental leases." Agricultural History 48.1 (1974): 130–150. Online
  23. ↑ Sharecropping. Slavery by Another Name. PBS. Retrieved on 7 December 2021.
  24. ↑ Arthur F. Raper, Preface to peasantry: A tale of two black belt counties (1936) Online free to borrow.
  25. ↑ Lee Alston and Joseph Ferrie, Southern Paternalism and the American Welfare State (1999) p 28 quoted in Gibbs, "Reconsidering the Southern Black Belt" (2003) p 258.
  26. ↑ Henry E. Chambers, (Chicago: A History of Louisiana, 1925), p. 373

Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

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Àgwàetiti Britain

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